sosial ekonomi peternakan unggas

http://ariefdaryanto.wordpress.com/2007/09/23/contract-farming-sebagai-sumber-pertumbuhan-baru-dalam-bidang-peternakan/

Purdue University “Sheep Extension”

http://ag.ansc.purdue.edu/sheep/goatlinks.html

Books/Video Dr. Temple Grandin

http://www.grandin.com/inc/ads.html

Livestock Behaviour, Design of Facilities and Humane Slaughter

http://www.grandin.com/index.html

Behavioral Genetic

http://www.grandin.com/references/genetics.html

Breeding Systems

http://www.sheep101.info/201/breedingsystems.html

“Lirihku”

I need LoveLirihku tak mengeluarkan suara keras. Mengerjan satu keistimewaan ketika aku merintih, meski aku tak sepenuhnya setuju melakukannya. Laraku tak pernah mau mengujar lebih jauh memajang al-kisah kenistaan yang terbuang karena alasan yang tak jelas sepanjang hidupku. Usiaku memang bukanlah usia muda yang penuh berjuta gejolak akan seribu satu cerita kebutuhan yang mengarahkan aku masuk ke dalam perangkap kematian harfiah lirihku.
Ku tak pernah bertatap lagi dengan rona malam yang menyelimuti atmosfer bumi. Ratapanku saja tak mungkin bisa di dengar oleh miliaran orang di bumi, rupaku saja yang mengisyaratkan berjuta warna kekelaman malam. Ingin kuganti rona kelabu dengan warna merah atau rona putih, biar aku bisa menangkap semua bentang alam dan menjelaskan betapa lirihku bisa diperhatikan mudah dimengerti oleh mereka yang tak bisa merabanya dengan mata, tapi aku berharap dengan penuh kesungguhan suatu saat lirih dan ratapan malamku ini mampu membekas secara ajaib ke dalam titik hitam yang jauh tersembunyi di balik kelam itu.

Penulis
Yudi

“Aromamu”

“The Flowers” itu adalah objek yang seringkali banyak orang mengakui kalau keindahannya mampu memberikan berjuta inspirasi. Emosi tak terbendung menyibak haru kelam yang menggelayut dalam dada. Rasa puas terujar dari mulut yang kaku. Ketika mata tertuju pada objek tersebut, maka dengan menatapnya memberikan pengaruh positif dalam kepala mereka. Imbas kematian sepertinya tak berlaku didalamnya.

Sebagai makhluk perasa, kita mempunyai ikatan secara langsung tak terkecuali karena adanya tingkat emosi yang tak terkendali dalam hati dan hati kita. Menggoreskan ke bagian yang menebar aroma, satu tindakan sulit untuk dilakukan. Membuktikan kalau kita sebagai pengadaptasi dan penerima aroma sejati bersaing erat dengan makhluk ciptaan lainnya. Dari semerbaknya aroma bunga yang meniti alam khayal kita, alam bawah sadar yang sulit ditebak oleh siapapun, untuk itulah saya mengilustrasikan kalau kita sudah dihipnotis olehnya “Aroma bunga.”

Tanpa memandang jenis kelamin; aroma bunga yang terbawa oleh angin menusuk secara langsung ke dalam hidung kita yang diketahui sebagai salah satu indera penciuman sangat peka. Barulah aroma tersebut berpetualang menelusuri syaraf-syaraf perasa yang ada dalam kepala kita, mencipta rasa indah secara langsung kebathin kita. Tak dinanya aroma yang ditebarnya akan merunut kisah sejuta misteri masa lalu dan pengharapan yang diinginkan untuk meraub satu keuntungan di masa depan. “Memang bunga bukan seorang peramal (oracle).” Ada sebuah media informasi yang mengatakan kalau para peneliti mimpi mampu membeberkan kebenaran yang di ceritakan oleh aroma bunga.

“Kalau menginginkan mimpi yang indah dalam tidurmu, maka letakkanlah di ujung hidung anda setangkai bunga yang beraroma harum, maka kemungkinan besar anda akan bermimpi yang indah-indah; sebaliknya bila kita meletakkan bau-bauan yang tak sedap di bagian ujung hidung anda, maka andapun akan bermimpi yang kurang menyenangkan.” Kurang lebih begitulah ceritanya.

Semerbak aroma bunga membius hingga ke dalam dunia khayal yang tak menentu itu, membuat alam bawah sadar kita memiliki sejuta insfirasi. “Anda pasti akan menarik nafas anda dalam-dalam ketika mencium aroma semerbak itu.” Adakalanya melihat dari kenyataan yang ada mata setiap makhluk hidup memiliki kekuatan emosional yang luar biasa pada objek tersebut. Itu berarti pernyataan saya tadi semakin benar.

Mungkinkah dengan mencium aroma bunga yang semerbak dikala bekerja mampu meningkatkan semangat kerja kita di kantor? Patut dicoba sebagai pembuktian. Aroma sangat mampu membuat anda merasa jauh lebih percaya diri tanpa harus selalu menggunakan parfum yang serba mewah; hitung-hitung mengurangi ketergantungan pada alkohol yang terkandung dalam parfum. Mungkin saja efeknya kekulit seringkali tak kita perdulikan, yang kita tahu penyebabnya adalah karena udara yang kotor dlsb. Bagaimana kalau kini di kantor anda mulai di tebar berjuta warna bunga indah yang beraroma semerbak!

Ini hanyalah inspirasi saya, tak perlu mengikuti dan memahami tulisan ini secara detail.

Penulis

Yudi, S.Pt.

Weekly Praise “Berita tentang Kanker”

http://centrin.net.id/~rdpnet/index-10-kanker.htm

“Kanker Cervix”

Kanker leher rahim menjadi salah satu penyakit pembunuh wanita nomor dua di dunia. Betapa tidak sebagian besar wanita yang menderita tak mampu bertahan lebih lama bila penyakit tersebut sudah ada dalam tubuh mereka. Satu kekhawatiran yang luar biasa, karena perlu pengawasan luar biasa ketika mengetahui, kalau kini jumlah penderita diseluruh dunia diperkirakan sekira 500.000 wanita. Mereka didiagnosa menderita kanker leher rahim dan rata-rata 270.000 meninggal tiap tahunnya. Betapa tidak, penyakit ini menjadi momok yang sangat menakutkan bagi kaum hawa. Untuk Indonesia, kanker leher rahim atau yang juga disebut kanker serviks merupakan jenis kanker paling banyak yang terjadi pada perempuan.

Tak ada pilihan usia maupun latar belakang bila dia mau menyerang, setiap perempuan beresiko terkena penyakit yang disebabkan virus Human Papilloma (HPV) ini. Bahkan kanker ini sering menjangkiti dan membunuh wanita usia produktif (30 sampai 50 tahun.Melihat tingginya faktor risiko penderita penyakit ini, sudah seharusnya kaum perempuan melakukan screening atau deteksi dini.

Salah satu metode pendeteksian dini terhadap kanker serviks tersebut yakni metode Inspeksi Visual dengan Asam Asetat (IVA). Metode ini tergolong sederhana, nyaman dan praktis. Dengan mengoleskan asam cuka (asam asetat) pada leher rahim dan melihat reaksi perubahan, prakanker dapat dideteksi. Biaya yang dikeluarkan pun juga murah, hanya sekitar Rp5000.

Selain prosedurnya tidak rumit, pendeteksian dini ini tidak memerlukan persiapan khusus dan juga tidak akan menyakitkan pasien. Letak kepraktisan penggunaan metode ini yakni dapat dilakukan di mana saja, dan tidak memerlukan sarana khusus.

“Cukup bed sederhana yang representatif.”

“Stroke”

Stroke bukanlah hanya sebuah kata yang menyatakan tentang kondisi orang yang tidak normal secara fisiknya. Ketidakseimbangan berbagai fungsi tubuh menjadikan masalah stroke semakin sulit hilang dalam ingatan kita, apalagi penyakit ini kini sudah tak mengenal usia lagi; siapa saja bisa mengalaminya.

Stroke adalah serangan otak yang timbulnya mendadak akibat tersumbat atau pecahnya pembuluh darah otak. Stroke merupakan satu masalah kesehatan paling serius dalam kehidupan modern saat ini. Di Indonesia, diperkirakan setiap tahun terjadi 500.000 penduduk terkena serangan stroke, sekitar 2,5 % atau 125.000 orang meninggal, dan sisanya cacat ringan maupun berat.

Jumlah penderita stroke terus meningkat setiap tahunnya, bukan hanya menyerang mereka yang berusia tua, tetapi juga orang-orang muda pada usia produktif.

Data penelitian mengenai pengobatan stroke hingga kini masih belum memuaskan walaupun telah banyak yang dicapai, hasil akhir pengobatan kalau tidak meninggal hampir selalu meninggalkan kecacatan. Agaknya pengobatan awal/dini serta pencegahan sangat bermanfaat, akan tetapi harus disertai dengan pengenalan dan pemahaman stroke pada semua lapisan dan komunitas dalam masyarakat.

Tanda-tanda munculnya serangan stroke
Pada tingkat awal, masyarakat, keluarga dan setiap orang harus memperoleh informasi yang jelas dan meyakinkan bahwa stroke adalah serangan otak yang secara sederhana mempunyai lima tanda-tanda utama yang harus dimengerti dan sangat difahami.  Hal ini penting agar semua orang mempunyai kewaspadaan yang tinggi terhadap bahaya serangan stroke.

Seringkali serangan stroke tak mengenal waktu, untuk itu tanda-tanda serangan stroke yang perlu diperhatikan, yaitu:
@ Rasa bebal atau mati mendadak atau kehilangan rasa dan lemas pada muka, tangan atau kaki, terutama pada satu bagian tubuh saja
@ Rasa bingung yang mendadak, sulit bicara atau sulit mengerti
@ Satu mata atau kedua matamendadak kabur
@ Mendadak sukar berjalan, terhuyung dan kehilangan keseimbangan
@ mendadak merasa pusing dan sakit kepala tanpa diketahui sebab musababnya/
Selain itu harus dijelaskan pula kemungkinan munculnya tanda-tanda ikutan lain yang bisa timbul dan atau harus diwaspadai, yaitu;
@ Rasa mual, panas dan sangat sering muntah-muntah
@ Rasa pingsan mendadak, atau merasa hilang kesadaran secara mendadak

Adapun, untuk menghindari stroke  seseorang bisa melakukan tindakan pencegahan termasuk membiasakan diri menjalani gaya hidup sehat.  Berikut adalah 10 langkah yang dapat Anda lakukan guna menghindarkan diri dari serangan stroke.

1. Hindari dan hentikan kebiasaan merokok.  Kebiasaan ini dapat menyebabkan atherosclerosis (pengerasan dinding pembuluh darah)  dan membuat darah Anda menjadi mudah menggumpal.

2. Periksakan tensi darah secara rutin.  Tekanan darah yang tinggi bisa membuat pembuluh darah  Anda mengalami tekanan ekstra.  Walaupun tidak menunjukkan gejala, ceklah tensi darah secara teratur.

3. Kendalikan penyakit jantung.  Kalau Anda memiliki gejala atau gangguan jantung seperti detak yang tidak teratur atau kadar kolesterol tinggi, berhati-hatilah karena hal itu akan meningkatkan risiko terjadinya stroke.  Mintalah saran dokter untuk langkah terbaik.

4. Atasi dan kendalikan stres dan depresi.  Stres dan depresi dapat menggangu bahkan menimbulkan korban fisik.  Jika tidak teratasi, dua hal ini pun dapat menimbulkan problem jangka panjang.

5. Makanlah dengan sehat.   Anda mungkin sudah mendengarnya ribuan kali, namun penting artinya bila Anda disiplin memakan sedikitnya lima porsi buah dan sayuran setiap hari.  Hindari makan daging merah terlalu banyak karena lemak jenuhnya bisa membuat pembuluh darah mengeras.  Konsumsi makanan berserat dapat mengendalikan lemak dalam darah.

6.  Kurangi garam.  Konsumsi garam yang berlebih mampu mempengaruhi tekanan darah terutama meningkatnya tekanan darah.

7. Pantau berat badan Anda.  Memiliki badan gemuk atau obesitas atau kegemukan seringkali perlu diwaspadai, hal ini dimungkinkan mampu mendorong kearah terjadinya peningkatan risiko peningkatan tekanan darah, penyakit jantung dan diabetes, kemudian aktivitas risiko tersebut sontak dalam tubuh semuanya dapat memicu terjadinya stroke.

8. Berolahraga dan aktif.  Melakukan aktivitas fisik secara teratur membantu Anda menurunkan tensi darah dan menciptakan keseimbangan lemak yang sehat dalam darah. Perilaku olah raga yang baik perlu kita lakukan, guna memecah sebagian besar kandungan lemak tubuh.

9. Kurangi  alkohol.  Meminum alkohol dapat menaikkan tensi darah, oleh karena itu menguranginya berarti menghindarkan Anda dari tekanan darah tinggi.

10. Up date pengetahuan Anda.  Dengan mengikuti perkembangan informasi tentang kesehatan, banyak  hal penting yang diperoleh guna menghindari kemungkinan atau menekan risiko stroke.  Berhati-hatilah, beragam hormon termasuk pil dan terapi penggantian hormon HRT diduga dapat membuat darah  menjadi kental dan cendrung mudah menggumpal

Chapter seventeen Mastitis management

T. Thirapatsakun

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Introduction
What is mastitis?
Why mastitis management?
Milk quality concerns
Effects on milk production
Effects on milk composition
Economic importance
Public health significance
How does mastitis occur?
Detection of mastitis
Physical examination
Strip test
Paddle test to detect somatic cells
Laboratory tests
Collection of milk samples
Natural defence mechanisms
Teat sphincter and keratin
Somatic cells
Antibodies
Nutrition
Control of mastitis
Background problem
Mastitis control strategy
Recommended milking procedures
Recommendations for milking equipment
Control of contagious mastitis
Control of environmental mastitis
Control of mastitis caused by other micro-organisms
Role of mastitis therapy

Handling mastitis problem herds

Mastitis control in heifers

Implementing herd mastitis control

References and suggested reading

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Introduction

Among the challenges of dairy development in the tropics such as breeding improvement, nutrition management, control of infectious, tick-borne, blood and internal parasitic diseases, mastitis is well recognised as being a major problem as it causes a serious wastage and undesirable milk quality. When modern dairy farming in the tropics was first adopted, mastitis was foreshadowed to be an important disease in dairy cattle. Most tropical dairy farmers today have experienced disaster caused by the disease, and can no longer afford its costs in addition to their other burdens.

Control of mastitis requires understanding of its causes and of management techniques which limit the spread of infection. Since dairy farmer knowledge is often lacking help from dairy scientists, extension officers, educators and veterinarians is necessary. It is therefore important that such assistants have adequate knowledge about mastitis control.

Research knowledge regarding mastitis and its control in the tropics is limited. Knowledge from which tropical dairy industries presently benefit, largely originates from extensive research in developed countries. Although environmental and management differences exist between these systems, it is fortunate that the causative agents and infection modes are similar. Therefore, mastitis control methods are essentially similar. The same programme that is effective in pastured herds or large herds maintained in corrals can also be effective in herds located in cold climates where cows are kept in barns throughout most of the year, and in small herds in developing countries in the tropics. Programmes may be fine-tuned to suit the local needs when more locally earned specific knowledge has been accumulated through research. This chapter provides practical information about mastitis management for dairy farmers in the tropics.

What is mastitis?

Mastitis is an inflammation of the udder caused by a variety of micro-organisms, mostly bacteria, that gain access to the interior of the mammary glands through the teat canal. The micro-organisms live on the cow, its udder and in its environment including the floor, faeces, soil, feedstuffs, water, plant material, and milking equipment and utensils. In response to bacterial invasion and multiplication, leukocytes move from the blood stream into milk in order to fight the infection. This constitutes the inflammatory response, which may go unnoticed in the form of subclinical mastitis, or it may be severe enough to be classified as clinical mastitis characterised by physical, chemical, and usually bacteriological changes in the milk and by pathological changes in the mammary tissue. If the infection is not contained by leukocytes or cleared through treatment, chronic mastitis may result. Such an infected quarter may lose up to 25 per cent of milk production and produce only poor quality milk as long as the infection still exists.

More than a hundred types of micro-organisms are known to cause mastitis. These organisms can be grouped as: 1) contagious bacteria: those that are spread from infected quarters to other quarters, such as, Streptococcus agalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus; 2) environmental bacteria: commonly present in the cow’s environment, such as environmental streptococci and coliforms; 3) other common mastitis pathogens: such as the coagulase-negative staphylococci; and 4) uncommon micro-organisms: such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Nocardia, and yeasts. This distinction is of practical importance because different control measures are needed for different groups of micro-organisms. Fortunately, these organisms are normally killed by pasteurisation and thus seldom cause disease in humans unless pasteurisation is faulty or raw milk contaminated with these organisms is consumed.

Most dairy farmers are conscious of clinical mastitis in their herd, but lack a full appreciation of the prevalence and economic importance of subclinical mastitis. Clinical mastitis is easily recognised and is characterised by visible abnormalities in the udder and/or milk. The subclinical form cannot be detected by visual observation of the cow or milk but it can be identified by conducting tests to detect infecting micro-organisms or the products of inflammation such as somatic cells in milk. For each case of clinical mastitis in a herd population there will usually be 15 to 40 subclinical cases (Philpot and Nickerson 1991), and most clinical cases are preceded by infection at the subclinical level. Subclinical mastitis tends to cause a herd problem, is of long duration, reduces milk production and adversely affects the quality of the milk. It is also important because it constitutes a reservoir of mastitis organisms that may spread to other cows in the herd.

Why mastitis management?

Mastitis results in decreased milk production, impairment of milk composition and quality, economic loss, and public health significance. Effectively controlling mastitis will help reverse these problems. Milk production and milk quality will be improved, producers’ income will be increased, and the public hazard to health will be reduced.

Milk quality concerns

Good quality milk production is one of the main objectives in dairy farming, in either large or small scale farms. This is because milk of good quality is desirable and hence saleable to the processors and acceptable by the consumers. Good quality milk and milk products as measured by consumers is wholesome, of good appearance, good predictable taste and flavour, maintaining original nutritional qualities, safe from harmful micro-organisms and substances, and has a long shelf-life. To produce good quality milk, the producers must be certain that milk comes out not only from disease-free animals but also from healthy udders by using properly sanitised equipment and maintained at its best for appearance, flavour, nutritional values, and free from drugs and chemical residues, with the least possible microbial contamination. Unhealthy udders which are mostly attributed to mastitis, regardless of the causes, definitely produce bad quality milk, either in terms of milk composition or bacterial contamination. Only sound mastitis management can help producers make more money by running, not necessarily a mastitis-free farm, but at least a near mastitis-free farm.

Effects on milk production

Reduction in milk yield is an obvious symptom of clinical mastitis. During the first ten weeks of lactation it could be almost twice as much as the average of reduction throughout the whole lactation which is about six per cent (Taponen and Myllys 1995). Reduction in yield in subclinical mastitis depends on the degree of inflammation which can be estimated from the somatic cell count in milk. Significant losses from individual cows and herds have been shown to be associated with elevated somatic cell counts; higher count equals greater loss. The loss of an individual cow increases from six to 30 per cent as cell counts increase from 100,000 to 1,600,000 cells/ml while the loss of the entire herd increases from six to 29 per cent for cell counts from 500,000 to 1,500,000 cells/ml (Philpot and Nickerson 1991).

Effects on milk composition

Somatic cell count also reflects the changes which occur in the composition of milk. As the degree of inflammation increases, the chemical composition of milk more closely approaches that of blood because the components filter from the blood circulation into the mammary gland. Table 17.1 shows the effect of subclinical mastitis on various milk components. It indicates that the yield of total solids, butter fat, solids-non-fat, casein and lactose is reduced substantially while total protein changes only slightly.

Economic importance

Mastitis causes economic losses from decreased milk production and increased management costs. Losses from mastitis are twice as much as losses from infertility and reproductive diseases. The largest proportion of the losses results from a direct drop in milk revenues, the non-marketable milk contaminated with antibiotics, decreased milk production which invariably accompanies the infection and premature culling of the animal in many instances. In Thailand, a rough estimate of the annual loss in 1989 was 700 million baht (Thirapatsakun 1989) and in 1998 the annual loss of 1500-2000 million baht is quite probable. This figure is substantiated by an 18 million baht cost of mastitis tubes imported annually.

Losses caused by clinical mastitis include; discarded milk with antibiotic residues; drug and veterinary and possibly laboratory costs; the possible death of an infected animal; culling; udder damage and interruption of breeding improvement programmes.

A formula for calculation of the basic loss due to clinical mastitis per cow has been developed (Thirapatsakun 1989) as follows:

Em = [P + (L x Kg x B)] M/4
where:
Em = loss due to clinical mastitis
P = cow’s price
L = days no milk delivered
Kg = average daily milk production
B = price per kg raw milk
M = no. of affected quarter(s)

If a cow valued at 28,000 baht, with 300 days in milk, and an average milk production of 10 kg/day at the price 9.00 baht/kg, lost one quarter permanently from mastitis, the overall loss per lactation would be 13,750 baht. The loss would also be 27,500, 41,250 and 55,000 baht for loss of 2, 3 and 4 quarters, respectively.

Table 17.1. The effect of mastitis on milk components.

	Components	Effect of subclinical mastitis
Desirable            Undesirable	Total solidsButter fat Solids-not-fat (SNF) Total protein Casein Lactose Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium Potassium Vitamins Heat stability and taste Cheese Plasmin Lipase (breakdown fat) Immunoglobulins Serum albumin Sodium Chloride Lactose and salt balance	Decreased 3-12%Decreased 5-12% Decreased up to 8% Decreased slightly Decreased 6-18% Decreased 5-20% Decreased Decreased Decreased Decreased Decreased Reduced Decreased curd strength, fat, and yield Increased Increased rancidity Increased Increased Increased Increased Reduced
Source: Philpot and Nickerson (1991) and Korhonen and Kaartinen (1995).

Additionally, there are also treatment (if any) and replacement costs. For a standard treatment cost, a formula was proposed (Thirapatsakun 1989) as follows:

Et = M [C + (Im + In/M)D] + [d x Kg x B x n/4] + P
where:
Et = cost of treatment
M = no. of quarter(s) affected
C = bacterial culture and sensitivity test
Im = intramammary infusion
In = systemic injection
D = days of treatment
d = days milk withheld
Kg = normal daily milk production
B = price per kg raw milk
n = no. of quarter(s) milk being withheld
P = miscellaneous expenses

Therefore a cost of 2000 baht overall results from a cow with an average 10 kg daily milk yield and one quarter affected with a mild form of mastitis, needing three day treatment, milk withheld for seven days from 4 quarters costing 200 baht for bacterial culture and sensitivity test, 240 baht for mastitis tubes (40 x 6; baht x milkings), 50 baht for systemic injection, 9.00 baht/kg raw milk price, and 300 baht for miscellaneous expenses, for example, petrol or vet fees.

Much has been said about economic losses due to clinical mastitis. However, the loss which is less obvious but even larger and higher in frequency, is the loss in milk yield and its quality caused by subclinical mastitis. In Thailand, for example, with the recent average figure of somatic cell counts from 800,000 to 1,000,000 cells/ml (Sukrawee personal communication), the estimated loss of 18 per cent (Philpot and Nickerson 1991) based on 1993 national milk production (232,760 ton) onward due to subclinical mastitis would be approximately 3,500,000 baht which would increase along with 17 per cent increase of milk production annually (MAAC 1997).

Public health significance

Mastitic milk can also pose a threat to human health. With severe clinical mastitis, gross abnormalities of milk are readily observed and milk is discarded by the producers. Such milk normally would not enter the food chain. But with subclinical mastitic milk or in the case of a small amount of badly infected mastitic milk accidentally mixed into bulk milk, changes in milk may be visible. Some mastitic milk carries bacteria that can cause severe human illness. Although pasteurisation is likely to destroy all human pathogens, there is concern when raw milk is consumed or when pasteurisation is faulty. Some strains of Staphylococcus aureus may produce heat-resistant enterotoxins which cause serious food poisoning.

Another public health concern regarding mastitis is antibiotic residues in milk. Residues in foods can initiate severe reactions in people allergic to antibiotics and, at low levels, can cause sensitisation of normal individuals and development of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. Compliance with recommended withholding time helps minimise the risk of antibiotic residues in milk and meat which is the producers’ responsibility.

How does mastitis occur?

Mastitis may be attributed to deficient management, improper milking procedures, faulty milking equipment, inadequate housing and breeding for ever-increasing milk yield. Management and environmental factors also interact, increasing the exposure of cows to mastitis organisms, reducing the cow’s natural resistance to the disease, or aiding micro-organisms’ entry through the teat canal. Climate, season, herd size, type of housing, nutrition and stress all influence the incidence of mastitis. Additionally, these factors interact with genetic and physiological factors such as stage of lactation, milk yield, milk flow rate, and pregnancy. Management and environmental factors in the majority of dairy farms in the tropics are far from adequate in terms of mastitis control. Control on smaller farms should be no more difficult to control than the larger ones. Cows anywhere in the world rely upon keen observation by owners and herdsmen to maintain management at a high level.

Detection of mastitis

Many different cowside and laboratory tests can be used to detect the presence of mastitis.

Physical examination

The most frequently used test involves physical examination of the udder. This is accomplished when the udder is being prepared for milking. Quarters that are hot and enlarged will be evident. Thorough examination is best carried out after milking.

Strip test

The second most frequently used test is the strip test, which involves stripping the first few streams of milk onto a strip plate or onto the floor in milking parlors. Mastitic milk will show discoloration, clots, or other abnormalities. Milk should never be stripped directly into the hands, nor should it be stripped onto the floor of a stanchion barn where the cows lie at the same place they are milked, as this procedure will aid in the spread of mastitis organisms to other cows or the other quarters. The strip test should be used by dairy farmers prior to each milking to aid in detecting clinical mastitis. Removal of the first milk also stimulates milk let down and shortens the milking period.

Paddle test to detect somatic cells

The California Mastitis Test (CMT) and other similar tests are useful in detecting abnormal milk. These tests are basically management tools to aid in identifying cows that may require special attention. The test reagent reacts with somatic cells in milk to form a gel. Reactions are scored according to the amount of gel formed when milk is mixed with the reagent. Many dairy farmers and veterinarians prefer to use a simplified scoring system as follows: N = Negative (no gelling), S = Suspicious (some gelling), and P = Positive (distinct gelling) (NMC 1987).

A few streams of milk should be discarded before the test is conducted, and results should be recorded for future reference; gel formation is very short lived. The paddle must be rotated gently in a horizontal plane and all reactions read within five to 10 seconds after rotation of the paddle has begun. When this is done, the test is valuable in detecting subclinical infection that might otherwise go undetected. Positive reactions do not always indicate the presence of infection, and therapy should never be initiated solely on the basis of such results.

Laboratory tests

Various inflammatory mediators such as somatic cells, serum proteins, enzymes such as NAGase (N-acetyl-_-D-glucosaminidase), and sodium and chloride concentrations may be tested for mastitis, especially the subclinical form. However, one should be extremely cautious comparing results from different materials as the changes in the inflammatory parameters do not necessarily parallel during the course of the inflammatory process. The most accurate way to identify infected cows is to aseptically collect milk samples from individual quarters or composite samples from all four quarters and have them cultured in a laboratory that specialises in mastitis microbiology.

Collection of milk samples

The reliability of laboratory culturing is dependent upon the manner in which milk samples are collected, stored, and handled afterward. Milk sample collection should be done aseptically so that the sample contains only pathogenic bacteria derived from the milk compartment of the udder, not from the teat skin or surrounding regions. When quarter milk samples are taken, two or three streams of milk should be discarded, and the teat end scrubbed for a few seconds with cotton balls moistened with 70 per cent alcohol prior to collecting the samples. Teats on the far side of the udder should be sanitised first and near teats last to avoid the latter being touched again by hands or forearms after being sanitised if the far sided teats were to be sanitised last. When teat ends are dry, milk samples should be collected in prelabelled sterile test tubes and closed with caps from near teats first and far teats last and put on ice water or refrigerated until delivered to the laboratory. Milk samples should not be frozen if the somatic cell counting is to be conducted as this destroys the somatic cells.

Natural defence mechanisms

Natural defence mechanisms of the udder can be used to our advantage in mastitis control.

Teat sphincter and keratin

The first barrier against mastitis-causing organisms is the tissues surrounding the teat canal, particularly the sphincter muscle that keeps the canal closed between milkings. Since the teat canal remains partially dilated for up to two hours after milking, it is recommended that cows be fed at this time to keep them on their feet until the sphincter muscle tightens to reduce the size of the opening. Antibacterial protein and fatty acids containing keratin in the teat canal partially blocks the opening in healthy teats.

Somatic cells

Once micro-organisms penetrate the teat canal, the next line of defence encountered is somatic cells in milk. Somatic cells are present at low levels in the absence of infection but rise dramatically when a quarter becomes infected. Approximately 99 per cent are white blood cells. The function of white blood cells is to destroy infecting micro-organisms and to aid in repair of damaged tissue. The other one per cent of cells in milk come from damaged milk-secreting tissues.

Developing countries in the tropics can hardly afford the monthly electronic somatic cell counts used in developed countries. However, other cheaper but less accurate indirect tests for somatic cell counts such as the California Mastitis Test (CMT) or Wisconsin Mastitis Test (WMT) should be used. Above all, emphasis should be made on preventing the entry of micro-organisms into the teal canal by good hygiene and good milking technique.

Antibodies

Antibodies are a very important resistance mechanism because they are specifically directed against certain mastitis causing bacteria, and their concentrations can be increased by vaccination. However, as many different species of bacteria can cause mastitis and most bacterial species that cause mastitis include many immunologically different strains, vaccination against mastitis is rather difficult. Vaccination programmes for controlling mastitis in the tropics have not yet been attempted.

Nutrition

Malnutrition increases susceptibility to infections. As dairy cows are bred to produce more milk, it is difficult to fulfil the nutrition requirements to cope with the production. Marginal nutritional deficiencies are likely to occur. Cows with parturient paresis (milk fever) and ketosis (energy deficiency) or selenium, vitamin E, and copper deficiency have an increased risk of mastitis. Vitamin A and beta-carotene are also needed for the mammary immune system to function properly (Chew 1987).

Control of mastitis

Background problem

Tropical dairy farmers, unaccustomed to paying much attention to the mammary glands, often thought that mastitis would never occur in their farms. However, commercially raising of dairy cattle highlighted the disease. Mastitis management becomes more difficult when some dairy farmers, embarrassed by their knowledge and management deficiency, disguise the truth about the real incidence of mastitis in their herd. The situation is aggravated by inadequate milk tests at reception of the majority of the milk collecting centres.

Many dairy farmers appear hesitant to implement mastitis control programmes because of the inconspicuous nature of the disease and the fact that most are accustomed to living with it. Tropical dairy farmers will have to pay more attention to all the factors associated with teat exposure and resistance to micro-organisms, both during intervals between milkings and at milking time. These factors include housing management, hygiene, nutrition, and stage of lactation, as well as methods used in milk production such as premilking udder preparation, proper milking equipment and technique, and postmilking management, particularly when milking is performed in the same place where the cows live such as in the stanchion barns.

Advisory personnel or extension officers must be equipped with sound knowledge about the disease, having correct understanding about the disease and its control. Furthermore leaders in the dairy industry should agree on common goals and recommendations, and ensure that everyone associated with the dairy industry makes the same recommendations. Otherwise farmers are likely to become confused and may not adopt any new practices.

Mastitis control strategy

Mastitis is best viewed as a herd problem rather than an individual cow problem. Unlike other cattle diseases such as brucellosis or tuberculosis, mastitis cannot possibly be eradicated on a large scale. Each individual herd is the unit of control by itself. The level of mastitis in a herd has nothing to do with the level in neighbouring herds. In controlling mastitis on a large scale, the primary need is not for a national mastitis control programme but for a herd mastitis management programme applied nationally.

Controlling mastitis involves a number of steps referred to as a `control programme’. To be acceptable, such a programme must be practical, easy to understand, highly effective in most dairy herds, increase economical returns, reduce new infection, shorten duration of pre-existing infections, provide tangible evidence that clinical mastitis is reduced, and be subject to easy modification as improved methods are developed.

In controlling mastitis, it is necessary that the level of infection in a herd be known to be able to assess seriousness, and sources and risk of spread of the infection. Prevalence of mastitis indicates a level of infection or the proportion of cows or quarters infected with the disease at a given time. The level of infection, clinical or subclinical, varies from farm to farm according to the environment and management factors in each herd. Regular monitoring of each farm is necessary. For practical reasons, the effectiveness of a mastitis control programme is measured by the level of infection, that is, the percent of cows or quarters infected which is dependent upon both the rate of new infections and the duration of each infection. If the rate of infection is reduced, the level of infection will fall, though very slowly. If the duration of infection is effectively shortened, the level of infection will soon be reduced, provided that no new infections occur. To keep mastitis at a low level it is necessary to prevent as many new infections as possible and then shorten the duration of those that do occur and finally eliminate the existing infection.

The Comprehensive Plan of Mastitis Control, designed to reduce the rate of new infections and shorten the duration of infection (Philpot and Nickerson 1991), has been widely adopted and if followed conscientiously on a continuing basis can effectively control mastitis in the vast majority of dairy herds. With some modification, it should be appropriate to apply for mastitis control in the tropics (Table 17.2).

Table 17.2. Comprehensive mastitis control.

Management task	Specific actions
Milking hygiene	Milk teats that are both clean and dry
Milking machines	Stable milking vacuum no slippping or squawking of liners shutting off vacuum before removing
Post-milking teat dipping	Immediately after removing cups full teat immersion not spraying
Drying off	All quarters of all cows after last milking
Treatment of clinical cases	Early detection and treatment maintain records
Culling	Cull chronic cases
Environment	Clean and dry uncrowded and well ventilated
Herd replacements	Test new animals before adding to herd check new animals regularly

Recommended milking procedures

Although the cow is usually exposed to the act of milking and associated events for less than 15 minutes a day, this period is a prime time for increased susceptibility to new infections. Correct milking procedures therefore are important, regardless of whether cows are milked by hand in traditional dairying situations or with modern milking machines. Preparation of teats and udders for milking reduces the number of contaminating micro-organisms on teat skin, and stimulates milk let down. Correct teat and udder preparation will reduce microbial contamination of milk, decrease residual milk left in the udder at the end of milking, increase milk yield, decrease milking time, and reduce the spread of contagious and environmental organisms that may cause mastitis and/or reduce milk quality. A summary of recommended milking procedures is as follows:

Provide cows with a clean, stress-free environment

The cows should be milked in an environment that is as clean and sanitary as practical. The milking time should be a consistent routine, and the cow should not be frightened or excited before milking because such stress results in hormones being released into the bloodstream that interfere with normal milk let down and may reduce the cow’s natural resistance to diseases such as mastitis.

Crossbred cows that have hairy udders should be clipped as necessary to remove long hair and to reduce the amount of dirt, manure and bedding that may contaminate milk. Also, the hands of milkers should be thoroughly washed and dried before milking, and hands should be rinsed in a disinfectant solution between cows. This procedure will help to minimise the spread of mastitis organisms from cow to cow.

Check udder and foremilk for mastitis

The presence of clinical mastitis can be detected by using the hand to physically examine the udder and by using a strip cup or plate to examine foremilk before each milking. These procedures aid in detecting hot, hard, and enlarged quarters as well as clotty, stringy, or watery milk. Strip cups and plates should be cleaned and sanitised after each milking to prevent the spread of mastitis organisms. Milk should never be stripped directly into the hand because the procedure spreads organisms from teat to teat and cow to cow.

Wash teats and lower surface of the udder

Correct washing and massaging of the udder sends a signal to the pituitary gland at the base of the brain, which secretes the milk let down hormone, oxytocin, to the bloodstream. This hormone then travels to the udder where it stimulates the muscle cells surrounding milk-secreting tissues to contract and cause milk let down. All teats, as well as the lower udder, should be thoroughly washed, massaged, and dried.

A sanitising solution should be used in a bucket with an individual cloth or paper towel to wash the udder when cows are maintained in stanchion barns. Use of a common cloth or sponge should be avoided because these become grossly contaminated and are almost impossible to sterilise.

Use a premilking teat dip (optional)

Disinfecting teats with a germicidal teat dip before milking is known as predipping; this can reduce the rate of infection with environmental organisms by 50 per cent and a modest reduction in mastitis caused by contagious micro-organisms. The recommended procedure is to: clean teats, forestrip, predip all teats, wait 20 to 30 seconds for contact time, and thoroughly dry the teats with individual towels to remove germicide residues before applying milking caps.

Dry teat thoroughly

Regardless of method used to wash teats and the ventral surface of the udder, it is imperative that surfaces be dried. Single service paper towels are preferred, though individual cloths for each cow can be used if they are washed, sanitised, and dried between milkings. Use of excessive water to wash teats and udders and failure to thoroughly dry the skin, results in water laden with micro-organisms draining down and being drawn into teat cups.

Attach teat cups within one minute

Attachment should be done carefully to prevent the entrance of excessive air into the milking system. Maximum internal udder pressure is reached approximately one minute after udder preparation has begun and lasts for about five minutes. Since the majority of cows will milk out in three to five minutes, attachment of teat cups one minute after stimulation has begun makes maximum use of the milk let down hormone oxytocin.

Adjust milking units

Milking units should be observed closely while attached to the udder to insure that they are adjusted correctly and to aid in preventing liner slips. It is extremely important that slipping or squawking teat cups be minimised because such occurrences slow down the milking operation and may cause machine-induced infections. If liner slips occur at the same time the liner opens, tiny droplets of milk may be propelled against the end of the teat at high velocity. Such droplets may contain mastitis organisms and may penetrate the teat canal. Since milk flow is reduced near the end of milking when most liner slips occur, the chances of the organisms being flushed out are reduced and an infection of the quarter may result.

Shut off vacuum before removing teat cups

The vacuum should always be shut off before teat cups are removed at the end of milking. Never pull the milking unit off the udder while still under vacuum because this practice causes the same problem as squawking teat cup liners and may result in machine-induced infections. A minute or two of overmilking with a properly functioning milking unit does not pose a major risk in terms of mastitis. If a quarter milks out ahead of the other quarters and if the teat cup remains attached to the teat without slipping, it should be left on because careless removal may permit air to enter, which stimulates a linerslip and may result in machine-induced infection via droplet impaction. If there is a probability of slipping on a particular teat, then the cluster should be lifted gently to seal the short milk tube of the liner over the ferrule of the claw to shut off the vacuum before detachment from the teat. Never remove the teat cup while under vacuum.

Dip teats with an effective teat dip

The dipping of teats immediately after milking in a safe and effective teat dip is the most important thing a dairy farmer can do to reduce the incidence the rate of new infections. The goal should be to dip the entire surface of the teat that comes into direct contact with the teat cup liner. This postdipping is to aid in controlling contagious mastitis. Teat spraying almost never covers the entire surface of the teat and is not encouraged. Teat cups should be kept clean and sanitary, but teat dip should never be poured back into the original container as the strength of the used teat dip may be reduced and allow the organisms to survive.

Disinfect teat cups between cows (optional)

Teat cup liners are often heavily contaminated with mastitis organisms as a result of milking infected cows and may serve to spread organisms from one cow to another. If the liners are to be disinfected, two teat cups should be dipped at a time, in a disinfectant solution. The solution should be changed when it becomes cloudy. This procedure must be done properly otherwise it may serve to spread mastitis organisms rather than eliminate them.

Recommendations for milking equipment

Problems with both milk quality and mastitis can result from improper design, malfunctioning, misused, or an improperly cleaned milking machine. Research in Denmark shows that if milking machines are properly designed, maintained, and used they will account for only about six per cent of all infections of the udder (Philpot and Nickerson 1991).

Milking systems are available in many different designs and sizes to meet the needs and resources of individual dairy farmers. All milking systems have the same basic components. These include: a vacuum system; pulsation system; milk removal system; milk handling system; and an electrical system. With respect to mastitis control, it is the milk removal system and in particular the teat cup liner slips which are associated with milking machine induced infections. Recent research has shown that a problem with liner slips exists if there are more than five to 10 liner slips per 100 cows. Some of the causes have been shown to be: poor cluster alignment; poor liner design; uneven weight distribution cluster; blocked air vent at the claw; and flooded milk lines. Other research has shown that slipping or squawking liners result from interaction of: liner design; cluster weight; vacuum levels; vacuum fluctuations; milking wet teats; absence of hose support arms; overmilking; and teat size.

Control of contagious mastitis

The most important contagious organisms are Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus agalactiae, though Corynebacterium bovis is also common in many dairy herds. Mycoplasma bovis is also highly contagious, but is very rare. The primary reservoirs for these organisms is infected quarters, though Staphylococcus aureus readily colonises teat skin and the teat canal, and has also been isolated from the udders of heifers that have never calved. These organisms, with the exception of Mycoplasma, are usually controlled quite easily by: good udder hygiene; correct use of good milking machines; dipping teats after milking; and treatment of all quarters of all cows at drying off.

The spread of Staphylococcus aureus within a dairy herd can be reduced by: milking first lactation animals before older cows; uninfected cows second; and known infected cows last. The use of vaccines against this organism should be viewed as an adjunct to control programmes described above, rather than as a replacement.

Streptococcus agalactiae can be eradicated from a dairy herd within a few months by following a culture and treat programme followed by the `Comprehensive plan of mastitis control’ outlined earlier. It is also necessary, that the situation be evaluated by a qualified person prior to detailed procedures for eradicating the micro-organism being implemented.

Control of environmental mastitis

A wide variety of environmental pathogens may cause mastitis. The most important organisms in this group are Streptococcus uberis, Streptococcus dysgalactiae and coliforms such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. As the name implies, these organisms originate from the environment and control is best achieved by decreasing exposure of the teats to the organisms. This means keeping cows in as clean an environment as possible. Infection with these organisms is higher in housed herds than in pastured herds, when muddy conditions exist, and during the wet season. Organic bedding such as straw, supports the growth of environmental bacteria more than inorganic bedding such as sand or limestone.

Environmental mastitis is associated with a high incidence of clinical mastitis in the herd which may fluctuate according to season. The bacteria isolated from the clinical cases are usually gram negative or Streptococcus uberis. If the mastitis is generally caused by E. coli, sampling of the whole herd is not necessarily of much help, as cases of E. coli mastitis seldom become chronic. The key to solving an E. coli mastitis problem is usually a dry environment. Water use should be kept to a minimum in the barn. Teat dipping and dry cow treatment have no influence on coliform mastitis.

Streptococcus uberis infections often occur during the dry period. The sources of infection are generally the cow and its immediate environment. Antibiotic treatment is not always efficient and chronic cases must therefore be culled. Good hygiene is most essential in the prevention of Streptococcus uberis mastitis.

Klebsiella infections are typically very difficult to treat, and the infected animals usually have to be culled. Before the mastitis problem is found to be caused by Klebsiella, a few cows may already have been lost. A vaccine against coliform mastitis is commercially available in some countries. A heat-killed Escherichia coli J-5 mutant vaccine tested at the University of California, Davis administered subcutaneously at drying off, 30 days later, and again within 14 days of calving can uniquely stimulate antibody production against a wide variety of coliform bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Enterobacter species. The vaccine alone will not eliminate coliform infections from a herd, but if combined with good management practices, will reduce the incidence of new infection.

Control of mastitis caused by other micro-organisms

The opportunistic micro-organisms include over 20 species of Staphylococcus species other than S. aureus (sometimes referred to as coagulase-negative-staphylococci or CNS) and are often the most frequently isolated bacteria in the herd. Infections with these organisms are usually mild and elicit only a slight increase in somatic cell count. The organisms are normally found on healthy teat skin and on the milkers’ hands and are thus in an opportunistic position to colonise the teat canal and penetrate to the milk-producing tissues of the udder. Incidence of staphylococcal infections is greatest during the early dry period when the teat skin is not exposed to germicides, so the percentage of quarters infected is high at calving. The use of a postmilking teat dip is the best means of controlling infections by Staphylococcus species. Dry cow therapy will eliminate a high proportion of existing infections at the end of lactation, but new infections in the dry period can be expected.

Other, less common, organisms that may cause mastitis include Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Arcano pyogenes (formerly known as Corynebacterium pyogenes and Actinomyces pyogenes), Nocardia asteroides, Serratia marcescens, Prototheca zopfii, Candida (yeast), and Bacillus spp. Infections by these organisms are usually sporadic and affect only one or a few cows in a herd, but can produce severe clinical symptoms. Pseudomanas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens, and Nocardia asteroides are generally resistant to most antibiotics and can survive in certain teat dips. Herd outbreaks with these micro-organisms are usually traced to contaminated water and poor treatment practices. The organisms are inadvertently placed into an udder by contaminated cannula, syringes, treatment preparation, home-prepared medications and inadequate pretreatment teat end sanitation. Water sources and udder wash hoses should be checked. Milking equipment should be kept in good order and teat end injury should be avoided as lesions provide a site for the growth of all mastitis micro-organisms.

Role of mastitis therapy

Despite the use of excellent preventive methods, some new infections still occur. Spontaneous recovery may occur in mild cases while others may require drug therapy. Culling, the other viable alternative for eliminating existing infections, is necessary in the cases of chronic infections that have resisted therapy. Successful antibiotic therapy for intramammary infections involves: drugs reaching all sites of infection in the affected quarters; drugs remaining at adequate therapeutic levels at all sites of infection for an adequate period of time, and killing all infecting micro-organisms.

Lactation therapy

Treatment during lactation is indicated only when: cows are infected with Streptococcus agalactiae; the herd somatic cell count is 600,000, and when clinical mastitis is present. Cure rates of the treatment depend on types and drug sensitivity of the infecting micro-organisms, and the intramammary conditions. It is advisable that treatment protocol be designed by a consulting veterinarian who will base selection on previous experience in the herd and on clinical signs and environmental circumstances. Drugs should be chosen according to the results from bacteriological diagnoses and sensitivity tests. Response to mastitis treatment should be monitored using appropriate inflammatory indicators such as changes in somatic cell count, protein, enzyme and electrolyte contents of milk. The California Mastitis Test (CMT) which measures the somatic cell count of milk is a simple test that the dairy farmers can also use. The test is rather subjective but its reliability is improved when quarters are compared. One should be aware of possible transmission of infection to other cows or quarters.

In the case of cows that are acutely ill, it may be necessary to administer; milk let down hormone oxytocin; large volumes of electrolytes; products to counteract inflammatory prostaglandins, and other drugs as directed by the herd veterinarian. Frequent milking out of the udder may also aid the animal in recovery because this practice helps to remove infecting organisms and their toxins and rid the udder of cellular debris.

Combination therapy, the procedures in which cows are treated simultaneously in the udder as well as systemically with compatible drugs may result in a significant increase in the concentration of antibiotics in udder tissues than treatment in the quarter alone, thus permitting drugs to reach micro-infections deep within the tissues. Cure rates against the chronic cases can be doubled.

Dry cow therapy

Dry cow therapy is the treatment of the udder with intramammary antibiotics at the end of the lactation. Treatment of all quarters of all cows at drying off with long-acting antibiotics is one of the most important components of the `Comprehensive plan for mastitis control’. It is the preferred time to treat subclinical infections. Advantages of dry cow therapy include: the cure rate is higher than when treated during lactation; higher concentrations of long-acting antibiotics can be used safely; the incidence of new infections during the dry period is reduced; damaged tissue is allowed to be repaired or redeveloped before freshening; clinical mastitis at freshening is reduced, and drug residues in milk are avoided. Infected quarters treated at drying off and cured at calving will produce 90 per cent of potential milk production during the next lactation whereas a quarter becoming infected during the dry period or which remains infected from the previous lactation will produce 30 to 40 per cent less milk. Concern about the possibility of routine dry cow therapy increasing the resistance of mastitis micro-organisms to commonly used drugs can be relieved since widespread use of dry cow therapy for more than 25 years showed no evidence of treatment associated resistance to drugs among major or minor mastitis pathogens (Philpot 1997).

The recommended procedure for dry cows is to: bring the cow to the end of lactation; treat in all quarters following the last milking; and reduce energy intake. Udders will fill with milk until a certain hydrostatic pressure level is reached and the milk will then be reabsorbed into the bloodstream. Milk in the udder at drying off is the useful vehicle for transporting drugs to all infected sites throughout the udder. Thus, the cow should not be completely dry when treatments are administered.

Treatment procedures

Regardless of the type of treatment used, it is important to follow label directions precisely to avoid drug residues in milk. Treated animals should be clearly identified in some obvious manner and they should be kept separate from untreated animals to aid in preventing their milk from being mixed with milk from untreated animals.

Prior to administering any type of therapy into a quarter, it is imperative that teat ends be thoroughly disinfected by swabbing for a few seconds with a pledget moistened with 70 per cent alcohol. Another procedure that is used by many veterinarians is to dip the teat prior to treatment with a teat dip and then administer the treatment through the dip. If teats are not sanitised before treatment, micro-organisms present on the end of the teat and in the teat canal may be forced into the quarter and may cause more severe mastitis than the one for which the antibiotic was intended.

The method of infusing drugs into the udder is also critically important. For example, forcing cannula all the way through the teat canal may actually force micro-organisms into the quarter. Insertion of the infusion cannula about three millimetres into the teat canal, increases the cure rate and reduces new infection. Most pharmaceutical companies have now designed infusion cannulas to this specification.

Avoiding drug residues

To avoid detectable residues in milk it is imperative that label instructions be followed exactly. Special attention should be given to dose levels, routes of administration and withdrawal time. Intramuscular injections, uterine boluses, and antibiotic feed may also produce antibiotic residues in milk with even longer withdrawal period, apart from intramammary infusion. Treated cows should be kept separate and should be clearly marked. Written records should also be kept of all treated cows as this information can help in making cull decisions with chronic cases. Treated animals must not be sold for slaughter until the drug withdrawal time for meat has elapsed.

Handling mastitis problem herds

A mastitis problem herd may have a high rate of clinical mastitis, a high somatic cell count indicating a herd problem of subclinical mastitis, a high bacteria count or a combination of the above. Poor milking hygiene, poor environmental hygiene, malfunctioning milking machines, improper milking procedures, and inadequate treatment methods are some of the usual reasons for mastitis problem herds.

The best way to start with a problem herd is by analysing a sample of herd milk in the laboratory, employing the recommended procedure (Philpot and Nickerson 1991) which has now been widely adopted. The procedure provides valuable and rapid information about the udder health and hygiene of milk production of an individual herd. The procedure involves three tests: a somatic cell count; a bacterial count (standard plate count), and microbiological culturing on blood agar to identify the types and numbers of different micro-organisms in the sample. Integration of the information obtained from the three tests can then be evaluated by a veterinarian or a trained technician to determine the nature, extent, and likely cause of a herd mastitis problem, and identify a herd hygiene problem as evidenced by improperly cleaned milking equipment, wet milking, contaminated water or poor cooling of milk. The information becomes basically a road map for determining the corrective action that should be taken.

Any herd with a high somatic cell count (500,000-1,000,000) should be considered a problem herd because mastitis will be prevalent. A few streams of foremilk from each quarter should be examined carefully to detect abnormalities. Cows with milk that is visibly abnormal or positive to the CMT should be segregated and the milk withheld from the bulk tank. The quarter milk should also be submitted for somatic cell count and cultured in the laboratory to identify the micro-organism responsible for the infections. This information is valuable for determining whether to treat or cull affected animals, and may help in determining the source of the problems as well as the corrective actions that should be undertaken.

High bacterial count indicates probable existence of mastitis-causing micro-organisms and/or bacterial contamination caused by poor milking hygiene, faulty cleaning or functioning of milking machine, and/or poor cooling of milk. If the number of streptococcal organisms is more than 75 per cent of the total, the source is likely to be infected udders. If the streptococcal count is less than 25 per cent of the total, the cause is likely to be improperly cleaned milking equipment, poor udder preparation (wet milking), or poor cooling of milk (Philpot 1997).

Samples with large numbers of streptococcal bacteria plus large numbers of staphylococci, coliforms, spore formers, and other micro-organisms often indicate a dual problem of infected cows and poor udder preparation (wet milking). A sample with very high staphylococci usually indicates poor cooling of the milk. High staphylococcal counts in herd milk are rarely, if ever, caused by an infected udder alone (Philpot 1997).

High coliform counts often indicate broken teat cup liners, low water temperature when the milking system is washed, milkstone on milk-contact surfaces, and failure to use correct chemicals to clean and sanitise milking equipment. A sample with large numbers of coliforms, staphylococci, and environmental streptococci often indicates faulty cooling of milk.

Above all, the `Comprehensive plan of mastitis control’ complemented with the Recommended Milking Procedures outlined earlier are the best set of guidelines for control of mastitis.

Mastitis control in heifers

Udder infections among heifers are quite prevalent, even in very young animals and can cause inflammation and tissue damage prior to calving.

Sources of infecting micro-organisms are believed to be: the environment; insects, especially flies; suckling among calves (particularly those fed mastitic milk); and microflora in the mouth and on the skin and haircoat. Management practices such as fly control, using individual calf pens, segregation of pregnant heifers from dry cows can help preventing development of mastitis in heifers.

Strategically treating pregnant heifers with antibiotics at different stages prior to first parturition, reduces prevalence of mastitis during early lactation. In instances where heifers are known to harbour udder infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus, they should be treated at about eight to 10 weeks prior to calving with a dry cow treatment product. With other types of infections, the preferred strategy is to treat at about seven to 10 days before the expected calving date with a lactating cow product. This practice will eliminate approximately 90 per cent of the infections. Treated heifers will produce 10 per cent more milk than untreated heifers. Extreme caution must be exercised when treating heifers to make certain that teat ends are thoroughly sanitised prior to treatment, and that insertion of the teat cannula is partial.

Implementing herd mastitis control

An effective mastitis control programme should be carried out, ideally by a team of veterinarians, laboratory microbiologists, milk plant field representatives or extension officers, milking equipment dealers, and most importantly, the dairy farmers. Extension officers are mainly concerned with environmental aspects and milking techniques and often take milk samples to the laboratory for mastitis diagnosis. Milking equipment dealers should ensure that the machine is properly cleaned, maintained and functioning adequately. The programme should be formulated by the practising veterinarian. Advice and education should be focussed on the dairy farmers who must be enthusiastic and well motivated to ensure the success of the programme.

Establishing goals

In the beginning, goals should be realistic and achievable. Higher goals can subsequently be attempted when some confidence is gained. The suggested criteria used for assessing the extent of mastitis problems include: herd milk somatic cell counts; herd milk bacteria counts; proportion of the individual cows with subclinical and clinical infections, and; discarded milk due to clinical mastitis both in terms of percentage of the production and the revenue lost. Ideally an electronic cell counter should be used for somatic cell counting. If this is not available, use of WMT or milk NAGase activity should be encouraged for indirect somatic cell count estimation.

High incidence of clinical mastitis usually results from a major deficiency in management such as an unsanitary milking area, inadequate milking hygiene, faulty milking machine, or purchase of infected cows. Any herd with a somatic cell count above 500,000 is usually considered as a problem herd.

While goals used in developed countries (Table 17.3) are probably unrealistic for most of the tropical dairy herds, they provide an example for long term goals.

Steps in the control programme

Initial evaluation of the mastitis situation in the herd should be measured by; interviewing the farmer and taking notes; evaluating the state of health of the whole herd; general herd management including, types of housing, bedding, feeding, manure removal, temperature and humidity; age or parity distribution of cows; milking equipment evaluation including rubberware use; milking practices and hygiene; mastitis treatment; culling rate and reasons; bulk milk cell count, followed by individual cow cell count or individual quarter cell count or equivalent estimates by CMT or WMT or NAGase activity; and existing bacteriological diagnosis from the laboratories.

Table 17.3. Suggested goals for mastitis management in a dairy herd (NMC 1996).

Mastitis Index	Desirable	Needs improvement	Immediate attention
Bulk milk somatic cell count (SCC/ml) and WMT equivalent (mm.)	<200,000 or 6 mm.	200,000 – 500,000 or 6 -13 mm.	>500,000 or >13 mm.
Bulk milk bacteria count (Counts/ml)	<10,000	10,000 – 25,000	>25,000
Proportion of cows with linear SCC score >4 (>200,000 SCC/ml or > 6mm. WMT equivalent)	<15%	15% – 25%	>25%
Clinical mastitis incidence (% cows/month)	<2%	2% – 5%	>5%
Discarded milk due to clinical mastitis (% of production)	<0.5%	0.5%- 1.5 %	>1.5%

When infection prevalence for a herd is determined, attention must be paid to the quality of the microbiological samples. Aseptically taking of quarter samples from the whole herd is a laborious operation. Sampling should thus be planned and care exercised when sending the samples with necessary information to the laboratory. To cut costs, the microbiological examination may be conducted only on those quarters, which are inflamed. Dry and periparturient heifers may be included in the study for more reliable results. At pre and post partum, the values of the inflammation indicators are always high and comparison of the quarters is then critical.

Disagreements between bacteriological tests and tests detecting inflammatory changes in milk are often encountered. Several reasons for these include: antibacterial factors in milk which prevent outgrowth of bacteria; there are so few bacteria that they cannot be isolated in the small volume cultured; the laboratory methods are not relevant for all types of microbes associated with mastitis; the inflammation is caused by udder trauma or teat injuries; the bacteria have died but the toxins released from them maintain the inflammatory response, and/or inflammatory reaction disappears more slowly after bacteria have been eliminated.

The results from the initial evaluation of mastitis situation should reveal whether the mastitis is environmental or contagious. Appropriate sanitation measured described earlier should then be applied accordingly. The producers must be realise that evidence of progress will often require several months and progress towards the goals established should be monitored on a regular basis. This will help maintain motivation for the programme as well as identify the areas where the programme may have to be re-evaluated. A suggested schedule for monitoring the udder health of a herd is presented in Table 17.4.

A mastitis control programme, even when successful, requires follow-up. Bulk milk somatic cell count or indirect somatic cell estimates is a basic means for permanent monitoring of udder health. Inflammation and infection percentages on a cow and quarter basis are useful tools in addition to other health and management reports. Ultimately, success of a mastitis control programme depends on active participation of all parties involved. The dairy farmers or farm personnel must appreciate the importance of all elements of the control programme. Emphasis should be made on positive reinforcement of goals and profit to be received. Inclusion of all the parties involved in the mastitis control team and recognition for an effort that results in success should be part of the plan. The link to record keeping as part of herd recording schemes should also be recognised.

Table 17.4. Example of a monitoring schedule for a herd mastitis control programme (NMC 1996).

Mastitis factor	Initial visit	Monthly	Semi-annually	Annually
Farm facilities	X			X
Milking hygiene/technicques/ teat dip programme	X			X
Milking equipment operation	X		X
Rubberware use-hose, liners, etc.	X	X
Bulk tank and individual cow SCC records	X	X
Culture of clinical mastitis cases and suspect cows	X	X
Review of clinical mastitis and treatment log	X	X
Review of nutrition programme and incidence of other diseases	X	X
NB: Changes in facilities or udder hygiene practices may require more frequent monitoring.

References and suggested reading

Chew B.P. 1987. Vitamin A and _-carotene on host defence. Journal of Dairy Science 70:2732.

Korhonen H. and Kaartinen L. 1995. Changes in the composition of milk induced by mastitis. In: Sandholm M., Hankanen-Buzalski T., Kaartinen L. and Pyorala S. (eds), The Bovine Udder and Mastitis’. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.

MAAC. (Ministry of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives). 1997. The VIIIth National Economic and Social Development Plan (1997-2001). Dairy Development Plan, Office of Agricultural Policy and Development.

NMC. (National Mastitis Council). 1987. Laboratory and Field Handbook on Bovine Mastitis. The National Mastitis Council, Madison, USA.

NMC (National Mastitis Council). 1996. Current Concepts of Bovine Mastitis. Fourth edition. The National Mastitis Council, Madison, USA.

Nickerson S.C. 1993. Vaccination programs for preventing and controlling mastitis. In: Proceedings of the National Mastitis Council Regional Meeting, Syracuse, New York, USA. pp. 64-72.

Philpot W.N. 1997. Quality milk production and masitis control. A comprehensive manuscript to be used as a basis for seminars and workshops. Philpot and Associates International, Inc. LA, USA.

Philpot W.N. and Nickerson S.C. 1991. Mastitis: Counter Attack. A Strategy to Combat Mastitis. Babson Bros. Co., Illinois, USA.

Sandholm M., Honkanen-Buzaki T., Kaartinen L. and Pyorala S. 1995. The Bovine Udder and Mastitis. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.

Sukrawee U. 1997. Personal Communication. Thai Dairy Industry Co. Ltd.

Taponen J. and Myllys V. 1995. The economic impact of mastitis. In: Sandholm M., Hankanen-Buzalski T., Kaartinen L. and Pyorala S. (eds), The Bovine Udder and Mastitis. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.

Thirapatsakun T. 1989. Mastitis: 1) Estimate of Annual Economic Loss. Journal of Thai Veterinary Medical Association 40:59-63. (English abstract).

Proper Dry Cow Management Critical for Mastitis Control

 

Author: G. M. Jones, Professor of Dairy Science, Extension Dairy Scientist, Milk Quality and Milking Management, Virginia Tech

Publication Number 404-212, posted May 1999

 

Summary

According to the National Mastitis Council, using FDA-approved intramammary antibiotics at drying off can decrease the number of existing mastitis infections and prevent new infections during the early weeks of the dry period. Dry cow therapy has the following advantages over lactation therapy: a) The cure rate is higher than that achieved by treatment during lactation, b) A much higher dose of antibiotic can be used safely, c) Retention time of the antibiotic in the udder is longer, d) The incidence of new infections during the dry period is reduced, e) Tissue damaged by mastitis may be regenerated before freshening, f) Clinical mastitis at freshening may be reduced, and g) The risk of contaminating milk with drug residue is reduced. Other components of an effective mastitis control program include: proper milking procedures using properly functioning milking equipment, dipping teats immediately after milking with a product known to be safe and effective, good udder hygiene between milkings, culling cows with chronic mastitis, and keeping accurate records of clinical mastitis and somatic cell counts on individual cows to assist in making management decisions.

A cow’s lactation begins at the time she’s dried off rather than when she calves. Proper management of dry cows often is neglected on many dairy farms. Dry cows often are placed in a back pasture and ignored, and subsequently are underfed. On other farms they remain with the milking herd and may be overfed, especially if they enter the milking parlor and consume left-over grain, or if corn silage is available free-choice. Proper dry cow management is important in preparing cows for the next lactation. Many disorders (e.g., milk fever, abomasal displacements, retained placenta, uterine infections), lowered milk production, and clinical mastitis can be avoided. How the dry cow is managed also may affect the health and performance of the newborn calf.

Dry cow management includes attention to proper procedures for drying-off cows, feeding a special ration, and concern about the cow’s environment. Breeding and mastitis problems can result from infections developed during this time. Cows are most susceptible to new mastitis infections during the first two weeks of the dry period, the two weeks before calving, and the two weeks after calving. Bred heifers are prone to new mastitis infections throughout pregnancy, but especially during the last 2 weeks before calving. Separate dry cows from the milking herd. When left with the milking herd, dry cows have access to corn silage or high quality legume silage and may become over conditioned or prone to other metabolic disorders, including increased “downer” cows or milk fever, ketosis or acetonemia, displaced abomasum, retained placenta and metritis, and coliform mastitis. During the next lactation, fat cows lose very little body weight, and milk yield peaks at only 60-70 lb. daily for Holsteins rather than over 100 lb. Excessive energy consumption results in a buildup of fatty tissue in the liver which interferes with normal metabolic processes. The damage may be permanent.

During the early part of the lactation, high-producing cows do not consume sufficient feed to meet their nutrient requirements. Milk production peaks at 4-6 weeks after calving; maximal feed intake occurs at 9-10 weeks. The extra energy needed for milk production is supplied by breakdown of body fat.

Drying-off

The cow’s udder needs time’s body needs time to restore body energy and nutrient reserves. A summary of DHI records shows that the dry period should be at least 40 days long, preferably 50-70 days, with greatest milk yields during the next lactation occurring after 60 days dry. It’s been suggested that first lactation cows should have a 65-day dry period. Cows dry less than 40 days produce lower milk yields during the next lactation. Dairy farms should set aside one day a week for drying-off cows. They should check their breeding records to determine which cows will calve within 50-70 days. They should not skip a week or cows will end up with short dry periods. In addition, when cows are treated with an antibiotic for mastitis at drying-off, a minimum dry period of 50 days is recommended to avoid antibiotic residues in milk after the cow freshens. Any Holstein cow producing less than 20 lb per day should be dried off; the chance of infection increases as production level declines. Dry cows up abruptly by discontinuing milking, dry treating, and feeding only hay and water. Cows should not be milked once-a-day or every-other-day over a short time period. Cows should be watched for several days. If they show signs of mastitis (swelling) or leaking milk, milk out and treat a second time after one week.

Dry Cow Therapy. On the average, 40-50% of the cows in the herd may have subclinical bacterial infections present in the udder. Milk appears normal but after culturing, mastitis-causing pathogens can be isolated from the milk. In a few herds, somatic cell counts may be low. Administer an effective dry cow mastitis product on the day of drying-off into every quarter of every cow. Before treatment, pre-dip with germicidal teat dip and dry after 30-45 seconds with paper or cloth towels. Then cleanse teat ends with alcohol. Carefully remove the protective tip from the treatment tube cannula. Do not use tubes if the unprotected cannula has become contaminated in any way, e.g., dropped on the floor, swatted by the cow’s tail, etc. Insert the cannula only partially up into the teat canal. Do not insert the cannula fully. Immediately after treatment, teats should be dipped in an effective teat dip. Dry cow therapy and teat dipping effectively reduce udder infections, unless damage to the udder by bacteria is too severe or if scar tissue has barricaded the infection. New infections develop in 10-15% of cows not treated at drying off. Dry cow therapy effectively prevents new infections from developing during the early dry period. Dry cow therapy is 90-93% effective against subclinical Streptococcus agalactiae infections, 70-80% effective against Staphylococcus aureus, and 70-90% effective against environmental streptococci. Treatment of staph infections during lactation may be only 50% effective or less.

Examine the individual cow DHI somatic cell count (SCC) records at first test after calving and compare to last test in the previous lactation. A low SCC suggests that either the dry cow treatment effectively reduced any infection or prevented new infections during the dry period. An elevated SCC indicates that a new infection has developed during the dry period. If this trend continues among other cows, re-examine the entire dry cow management program, including drug resistance or sensitivity, treatment procedures, housing, and environment. If the SCC remains high from the last SCC in lactation through the first test in the next lactation, either the dry cow treatment was ineffective or the infection has walled itself off with scar tissur and became resistant to the treatment, which may occur with S. aureus infections.

Culture aseptic milk samples from individual cows and review sensitivities to antibiotics. At least 10-20% of the herd should be sampled and cultured during the year to determine which organisms are predominant. Samples should be collected from cows with new mastitis infections (sample CMT positive quarters of cows whose DHI somatic cell count score was 5 or above, quarters with clinical mastitis). Drug sensitivity tests on these samples indicate whether or not microorganisms have become resistant to any antibiotics. Resistant drugs should not be used for treating dry or lactating cows.

Immunization with E. coli vaccine. Research conducted in California and Ohio showed that vaccination with E. coli J5 bacterin at drying off, 30 days after drying off, and within 24 hours of calving reduced the incidence by 80% and severity of clinical coliform mastitis during the first 90 days of lactation by four-fold because dry matter intake and milk yield were depressed in unvaccinated control cows who were challenged with E. coli infusions into the udder. Although protection was greatest in older cows, positive effects were found in second and third lactation. Heifers were not vaccinated; however, a Utah Extension publication has recommended that heifers can be vaccinated with J5 at the 7th and 8th months of gestation and at calving. Consult your veterinarian for his/her professional opinion.

Early Drying Off. Drying cows off early allows one to administer dry cow antibiotic therapy sooner, which may increase the chance of eliminating the infection. The dry period can be extended by 30 to 60 days. Any cow whose SCC has increased to DHI SCC score of 5 and above (actual SCC 300,000) during the lactation can be dried off and dry treated earlier than would be expected, especially for cows producing only 30-40 lb. milk.

No dry period. Cows with elevated SCC in early lactation should be cultured. If S. aureus is found, the cow should not be bred and she should be culled from the herd whenever she is no longer profitable or the farm is not able to isolate infected cows. These cows remain a source of infection as long as they remain in the herd.

Dry Cow Therapy to Bred Heifers. New infections can be found in many heifers, either at calving or in early lactation. Often S. aureus infections, if untreated, become clinical and recur throughout the first lactation and into the second lactation. Louisiana studies have examined the feasibility of giving antibiotic therapy to heifers (Nickerson et al., 1995). A dry cow product containing penicillin and dihydrostreptomycin was administered at the first, second, or third trimester of pregnancy in 35 bred heifers from four herds. Although prevalence of infection and SCC was reduced by treatment in all three groups of heifers, heifers dry-treated during the second trimester of pregnancy demonstrated greater reduction in mastitis and SCC at calving. Consult with your veterinarian for treatment options and choice of antibiotics. To avoid causing an infection during treatment, it is important that teat ends be properly cleaned and disinfected before and after treatment, especially since treatment penetrates the seal in the teat end. Refer to the earlier section on Dry Cow Therapy. Turn heifers into clean and dry environment. Check milk for presence of antibiotic residue at 3 to 5 days after calving and before milk is put into milk tank.

Housing and Environment

Provide an environment that will minimize exposure to dirty conditions. Dry cows need to exercise and to get off concrete. The dry lot should provide numerous shade trees and be well drained. Dry lot location is an important factor in providing an environment with reduced bacterial populations. Filthy, damp, or muddy pens or stalls, lots, or pastures continually expose the teat end to a barrage of bacteria. Often the dry lot on many farms is located down hill or on the lower side of the housing and milking operation. The best solution to this problem is to locate the dry lot up hill from the milking operation and fence off all ponds, streams, swampy areas, and ditches. Cattle crossings should be built to keep cows out of water and prevent erosion of streambanks. Many cases of coliform mastitis and/or reproductive infections have developed from such conditions. If only one or two shade trees are present, cows congregate under these trees on hot days. Considerable manure build up occurs over a short time. Because manure is a good source of coliform bacteria and other destructive organisms, manure buildup resulting from too little shade can result in serious udder infections.

Pasture has reduced the risk of environmental mastitis, but exposure is increased when cows have access to lots with limited shade trees, or pastures that are overgrazed, or grazed during periods of heavy rain. If cows are turned out into pastures or loafing lots, well-drained paddocks are preferred. Loafing lots or pastures should be managed to prevent muddy areas where heifers or older cows would lie down (see Virginia Cooperative Extension Publication 404-252, Dairy loafing lot rotational management system, 1994).

Fly control. Flies carry a number of mastitis-causing organisms that can colonize teat lesions. Incidence of environmental mastitis is higher during summer and fall as is fly infestation. Flies may cause mastitis by biting teats and causing damage that provides an excellent site for colonization. This has not yet been proven, but many feel this may be a convincing cause. Elimination of fly breeding sites is one aspect of fly control. Flies breed in decaying feed or manure that has accumulated, including exercise yards, calf pens, and box stalls. Other options include backrubbers, feed additives and ear or tail tags. The possible role of flies in the transmission of mastitis from infected to uninfected cows is one reason to separate dry cows from bred heifers. First lactation cows have a surprisingly large proportion of mastitis infections, often caused by environmental pathogens.

Feeding Dry Cows

A cow’s body condition at drying-off should be close to that desired at calving. Adequate body energy and nutrient reserves are required to attain and hold top production during early lactation. Cows in poor body condition will drop off in milk production and are difficult to get bred. The late lactation is more efficient in restoring reserves than the dry period. The desired body condition in dry cows (3+ to 4 score) is where the chine and loin areas are rounded and continue into the rump. The back should begin to show some fat deposition. The hips and pins are round. Some fat should be deposited around the tailhead and pin bones. For more information, see VCE Publication 404-104, Body condition scores for evaluation of nutritional status, 1990.

Dry cows should be fed a specific ration balanced to meet nutrient requirements of dry cows (see VCE Publication 404-105, Updated Nutrient Specifications For The Dairy Herd, 1996). The ration dry matter should contain 10-12% crude protein, 60% TDN, at least 33% acid detergent fiber, 2.6-3.2 g calcium per lb. (60-80 g per day total), and 1.4 g phosphorus per lb. (30-40 g per day total). Corn silage should be limited to 30 lb. per day for 1500 lb. cows. Feed at least 10 lb. hay, preferably grass hay or grass-legume mix. Do not feed legume alone, as it contains excessive protein and calcium. Examples of dry cow rations are shown in Table 1. Amounts are expressed per 100 lb. body weight. Take the average body weight and divide by 100. Multiply this factor by the suggested amount of feed. For example, the factor would be 15 for dry cows averaging 1500 lb. (factor = 1500/100 = 15). Ration C would provide 30 lb. silage, 10 lb. hay, 1 lb. corn, and 2.25 oz of each mineral per cow daily.

Table 1. Feeding Guidelines for Dry Cows at Different Body Weights Example Feeding Programs

 

Feedstuffs	A	B	C
lb. per 100 lb. body wt
Grass Hay	2.0	0.67	—
Alfalfa Hay	—	—	0.67
Corn Silage	—	2.0	2.0
Shelled Corn	—	0.13	0.06
Soybean Meal	—	0.067	—
Dicalcium Phosphate	—	0.1 oz	0.15 oz
Limestone	0.1 oz	0.2 oz	0.15 oz

A good quality bluegrass-clover pasture is excellent for dry cows. Such a pasture probably needs no supplementation. Clover and bluegrass contain considerable amounts of vitamins A and E. Stored forages lose vitamin levels with time. The dry cow ration should provide 40,000 I.U. vitamin A, 20,000 I.U. vitamin D, and 1,000 I.U. vitamin E daily if cows are not injected at drying off or if fresh forage is not provided. Rotational grazing of such pasture would provide excellent feed to both dry cows and bred heifers, especially since both groups often need additional attention. Rotational grazing would have an advantage over continuous permanent pasture which is usually low quality. Groups of animals would need to be rotated every 3 to 7 days, depending upon pasture quality, growing conditions, and numbers of animals. Several types of pastures could be included in the rotation, such as cool season grasses, legume-grass mix, and sorghum-sudan for summer months. Small amounts of hay (3-4 lb.) should be available to prevent bloating.

Two Weeks Before Calving (Transition period)

Isolate cows due to calve from other dry cows and the milking herd. A small pasture beside the barn or near the center of activity is ideal. Feed provides nutrients to the cow, the calf, and to the microbial population within the cow’s rumen. Rumen microorganisms require adaptation to changes in the ration. A dramatic change after calving from a high forage, high fiber ration to a high concentrate, low fiber ration can throw cows off-feed or result in ketosis or acidosis. The cow must be conditioned so that she can consume large amounts of carbohydrates and proteins after calving. Starches in concentrates are rapidly converted to short-chain acids. Microbes that utilize these acids are slow to develop. The cow spends less time chewing her cud, and therefore reduces the amount of saliva that is added to the rumen to buffer the increase in acid production. A similar phenomenon occurs when finely ground or chopped feeds are consumed.

The energy density necessary in a dry cow ration increases from .57 Mcal/lb. at 21 days to .66 Mcal/lb. at 7-10 days before calving to .88 Mcal/lb. during the last three days ¹. During this period, it is important to feed sufficient fiber or bulk to maintain a healthy rumen and keep it distended, while boosting energy intake or nonfiber carbohydrates (NFC or starch) to increase production of propionic acid. This acid would stimulate growth and development of rumen papillae so that acidosis is unlikely and send a signal so that the cow mobilizes less body fat which may reduce fatty liver or ketosis. Too little fiber may lead to acidosis. The diet should be more energy dense than the typical dry cow ration containing .57 Mcal/lb. A diet containing .88 Mcal/lb. is not practical. A transition diet of .70-.72 Mcal/lb. was recommended, with NFC between 35-40% of dry matter and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) at 32% or above. The amount of concentrate should be limited to 7-8 lb. per cow daily, preferably fed in a total mixed ration. If transition cows cannot be grouped separately from other dry cows and fed this ration, the transition diet should be fed to all dry cows.

¹Grummer, R. 1998. Feeding close-up cows is a balancing act. Page 185 in March 10 issue of HOARD’S DAIRYMAN.

At 2-3 weeks before expected calving, offer limited amounts of corn (35-40 lb.) or hay crop silage (30-35 lb.) and provide at least 10 lb. hay. Introduce the milking herd concentrate but restrict the amount to 4-8 lb. per day. Hold the amount constant until after calving. This ration would approximate 25-29% acid detergent fiber, 42% NDF, and 35-40% NFC. Avoid free-choice salt or protein supplement, forages with over 3% potassium, and buffers. Very little is known regarding the cause of udder edema, but excessive salt, energy, or protein intakes may contribute.

After calving, keep milk from fresh cows out of the bulk tank for at least three days. Remove calves from cows and feed colostrum by hand to insure adequate intake. “Hand walk” cows through parlor for milking. After 3-5 days, feed the milking herd ration. If milking cows are grouped, do not put fresh cows into the high group for two weeks after calving. When concentrate is offered at milking, increase the amounts gradually (2 lb. increments). If cows do not receive corn silage until after calving, consider adding sodium bicarbonate to the ration to buffer the dramatic change in feeds. Microorganisms in the cow’s rumen are slow to adjust to ration changes, thus drastic changes in the feeding program result in detrimental effects on this microbial population.

Vitamin E and Selenium. Supplementation of the diet with vitamin E a nd selenium has reduced mastitis. Selenium injections (4.5 mg/100 lb. body weight) may be given at 21 days before expected calving and the ration of bred heifers supplemented with vitamin E. Together these practices have reduced mastitis in early lactation more than either practice alone (Hogan et al., 1993). The effect of vitamin E on clinical mastitis was more pronounced for first lactation than older cows (Weiss et al., 1997). Vitamin E levels of at least 1,000 IU/day during the dry period and 500 IU/d during lactation were more beneficial than National Research Council’s recommended 100 IU/d. Selenium was added to the ration to provide 0.1 ppm, which resulted in plasma selenium levels lower than accepted as adequate. Selenium also may be added to dry cow and milking herd rations (3 and 6 mg/head daily, respectively). Vitamin E and selenium also reduced retained placenta, metritis, and cystic ovaries.

Calving areas must be clean and dry. They should be cleaned and sanitized after 1-2 calvings, with one box stall per 15-20 cows and bedded with straw, shavings or sand. Organic materials, e.g., straw, sawdust, and shavings, as bedding have been associated with an increase in environmental mastitis. Sand does not support bacterial growth but could be a problem with liquid manure systems. When cows are confined to freestall barns, adequate dry bedding should be provided to keep freestalls and pens clean, dry, and comfortable. Freestalls should be properly designed and maintained. Daily removal of wet and soiled bedding is recommended.

For herds with a high incidence of mastitis at calving, or high average SCC at first DHI test among first lactation cows, either prepartum milking or prepartum antibiotic therapy may have considerable merit.

Lactating Cow Treatment to Bred Heifers. In Tennessee, several studies administered a lactating cow antibiotic treatment containing either cloxacillin or cephapirin at 7 days before expected calving in heifers (Oliver et al., 1992). In a subsequent study, cephapirin was given at 14 days before calving. Treatment of pregnant heifers at 14 days prior to expected parturition with cephapirin lactation therapy gave greatest reduction in intramammary infections, with greater milk production and little risk of antibiotic residue in milk at 3 days after calving unless heifers calved shortly after treatment. Use treatment precautions indicated under Dry Cow Therapy. If antibiotic treatment is used, remember to follow label withholding recommendations for discarding milk. It is recommended that treated animals should be tested with an antibiotic residue test at 3-5 days after calving and milk discarded until it tests negative.

Prepartum Milking. Incidence of mastitis infections after calving was reduced in seven New York dairy herds when heifers were first milked 14 days before calving. Milk yield was unaffected. Two years later, four herds had continued prepartum milking of heifers because of easier adaptation to milking. The April 25, 1997, issue of HOARD’S DAIRYMAN described a New York dairy farm where 2-year-old heifers were milked a minimum of 2 weeks prior to calving, preferably 4-6 weeks (Wilson, 1997). The practice acclimated heifers to the milking environment and cut down on congestion and soreness. Heifers were put in the holding area for 1-2 days before being brought through the parlor. After several days of coming through the parlor, teats are wiped. After a couple more days, milking machines were attached. This practice may be considered for herds with mastitis problems at calving; however, heifers will secrete no colostrum at calving. Thus, newborn calves will need frozen colostrum, preferably first colostrum from older cows, to acquire needed immunoglobulins against disease. In Michigan dairy herds, 30% of drug residue violations during 1996 were related to dry cow therapy. The causes included: (1) Dry cows housed with lactating cows and milked accidentally, 15; (2) Milk from fresh cows not withheld sufficient time, 11; (3) Dry cows in separate lot but escaped to milking lot, 8; and (4) Lactating cows accidentally dry treated but milked, 6. To reduce the risk of antibiotic residues because of treatment during the dry period: dry cows and fresh cows should be separated from the milking herd; dry treated cows should be marked differently from treated lactating cows; milkers should understand different markings and have access to treatment records: milkers should be trained to detect cows with udder edema and the potential risk; and cows receiving any extra-label treatment should be tested with a screening test before their milk is added to the bulk tank.

Conclusions

The management of dry cows needs as much planning and attention as that of milking cows. Certain precautions are necessary at drying off and around calving. Neglecting facilities, environment, and feeding can dramatically influence the long-term success in a herd.

References in Refereed Scientific Publications

• Hogan, J. S., W. P. Weiss, and K. L. Smith. 1993. Role of vitamin E and selenium in host defense against mastitis. J. Dairy Sci. 76:2795-2803.
• Nickerson, S. C., W. E. Owens, and R. L. Boddie. 1995. Mastitis in dairy heifers: Initial studies on prevalence and control. J. Dairy Sci. 78:1607-1618.
• Oliver, S. P., M. J. Lewis, B. E. Gillespie, and H. H. Dowlen. 1992. Influence of prepartum antibiotic therapy on intramammary infections in primigravid heifers during early lactation. J. Dairy Sci. 75:406-414.
• Weiss, W. P., J. S. Hogan, D. A. Todhunter, and K. L. Smith. 1997. Effect of vitamin E supplementation in diets with a low concentration of selenium on mammary gland health of dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci. 80:1728-1737.
• Wilson, K.O. 1997. Streamlined dairy premilks its heifers prior to calving. p. 348 in April 25 issue of Hoard’s Dairyman.

 

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Deteksi Kanker Leher Rahim

KANKER leher rahim merupakan jenis penyakit kanker paling banyak kedua di dunia yang diderita wanita di atas usia 15 tahun.

Sekitar 500.000 wanita di seluruh dunia didiagnosa menderita kanker leher rahim dan rata-rata 270.000 meninggal tiap tahunnya.Untuk Indonesia, kanker leher rahim atau yang juga disebut kanker serviks merupakan jenis kanker paling banyak yang terjadi pada perempuan.

Tanpa memandang usia dan latar belakang, setiap perempuan beresiko terkena penyakit yang disebabkan virus Human Papilloma (HPV) ini. Bahkan kanker ini sering menjangkiti dan membunuh wanita usia produktif (30 sampai 50 tahun.Melihat tingginya faktor risiko penderita penyakit ini, sudah seharusnya kaum perempuan melakukan screening atau deteksi dini.

Salah satu metode pendeteksian dini terhadap kanker serviks tersebut yakni metode Inspeksi Visual dengan Asam Asetat (IVA). Metode ini tergolong sederhana, nyaman dan praktis. Dengan mengoleskan asam cuka (asam asetat) pada leher rahim dan melihat reaksi perubahan, prakanker dapat dideteksi. Biaya yang dikeluarkan pun juga murah, hanya sekitar Rp5000.

Selain prosedurnya tidak rumit, pendeteksian dini ini tidak memerlukan persiapan khusus dan juga tidak akan menyakitkan pasien. Letak kepraktisan penggunaan metode ini yakni dapat dilakukan di mana saja, dan tidak memerlukan sarana khusus.

“Cukup bed sederhana yang representatif. Ini mudah dilakukan bidan atau perawat yang terlatih,” ujar Laila Nuranna, Koordinator Program Deteksi Dini Kanker Rahim di Kantor Kecamatan Johar Baru, Jakarta Pusat, Jumat (14/3) saat menghadiri acara peluncuran program tersebut.

Saat ini, bekerja sama dengan Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Indonesia dan Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherland, Yayasan Kanker Indonesia DKI Jakarta mencanangkan program deteksi dini kanker rahim dengan metode IVA.

Wilayah yang menjadi pilot project screening kanker serviks tersebut yakni Kecamatan Johar Baru, Jakarta Pusat, yang merupakan salah satu wilayah terpadat di Jakarta.Tempat melakukan deteksi dini menggunakan metode IVA di wilayah Kecamatan Johar Baru dan juga Jakarta Pusat saat ini terdapat pada Puskesmas Pulogundul, Puskesmas Johar Baru 1, Puskesmas Johar Baru 2, Puskesmas Johar Baru 3, Puskesmas Galur, Puskesmas Kampung Rawa, Puskesmas Tanah Tinggi, dan Rumah Bersalin Panti Astuti.

Laila Nuranna mengatakan kegiatan pendeteksian tersebut diharapkan selanjutnya dapat menyebar ke seluruh wilayah Jakarta dan ke seluruh Indonesia. “Kami harap akan melibatkan banyak pihak, lebih banyak masyarakat yang memahami bahaya kanker leher rahim serta mengetahui dan melaksanakan upaya pencegahan,” ujar Laila.

Pasien yang hasil pemeriksaannya menunjukkan keadaan abnormal, jelas Laila, akan dilakukan pengobatan dengan metode krioterapi yaitu sebuah tindakan medis dengan cara mendinginkan bagian yang sakit sampai dengan suhu di bawah nol derajat selsius. Metode ini disebut juga terapi gas dingin.

Kanker

http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanker

Brain Health

http://brain.healthdiaries.com/

Bladder Cancer

 

Out of approximately 53,000 cases of bladder cancer each year, 38,000 of them occur in men. It is the fourth most common cancer in men. Nobody knows why it occurs or why it occurs more in men, but certain risk factors are known, including age, cigarette smoking, environmental toxins, family history, and gender. In addition, Caucasians are diagnosed with bladder cancer more frequently than other races.

Health Diaries

http://cancer.healthdiaries.com/

the daring book for girl

http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0061472573%3ftag=healthdiaries-20%26link_code=xm2%26camp=2025%26dev-t=1CHANSYVAH7566Z5PSG2

Children Who Sleep More Weigh Less

A new study published in the journal Child Development has found that children who get more sleep are less likely to be overweight than kids who skimp on shuteye.

“Our study adds to the growing literature about the connection between sleep and weight,” said Emily Snell, the study’s lead author and a doctoral student in Northwestern’s department of human development and social policy. “Other studies have found that sleep and weight are related in adults and kids, but it’s not clear if sleep affects weight, or vice versa. We accounted for that by factoring in how much the kids already weighed,” Snell said.

Healthy Banana Bread Recipes Month

During the month of May I’ll be making a variety of different healthy banana bread recipes using different ingredients and substitutions to see just how healthy banana bread can be made.

Banana bread is one of the most popular comfort foods in the world and I thought it would be the perfect way to test out different ingredient substitutes.

Starting with a basic, traditional banana bread, I’ll go from there to create different versions. I’m even planning to make a vegan recipe using chia gel as a substitute for eggs. I’ll be doing different types of banana bread, such as blueberry banana bread, strawberry banana bread, banana chocolate chip bread, and more.

I’ll be doing taste tests on friends and family by giving them several different banana breads to taste and not telling them which ones are which. Will they be able to tell the difference between the chia gel version over the real egg version? It’ll be interesting to find out!

I’m even going to try and make a raw vegan banana bread using the dehydrator.

If you have a healthy banana bread recipe you’d like to share, send it to me at eat @ healthdiaries.com and if I try it out and like it, I’ll post it on the blog with a lin or credit back to you.

Related Content
Calories in a Banana
How to Freeze Bananas
Do Bananas Cure Hangovers?

Spicy Food and Pregnancy

A lot of women wonder if it’s safe to eat spicy food during pregnancy. Fortunately for women who love spicy food, it is a myth that it must be avoided by expectant mothers.

In countries like India and Thailand, where spicy food is part of the culture, women do not change their diets drastically when they become pregnant. They continue to eat spicy foods with no detrimental effect to the developing fetus.

According to experts, the only reason for pregnant women to avoid spicy foods is if it gives them digestive discomfort or heartburn.

The important thing to remember is to eat a variety of foods during pregnancy and to make sure you get all the nutrients necessary for your growing baby.

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Dairy Free Banana Bread Recipe

25 Facts About Bananas

Here are 25 facts about one of the world’s most popular fruits:

The banana “tree” is not really a tree, but a giant herb. The banana is the fruit of this herb.

The cluster of bananas sold in supermarkets is a “hand” of bananas, while the individual bananas on the hand are called fingers.

The strings that go up and down the length of bananas are called Phloem Bundles. They help distribute nutrients to every part of the growing bananas.

The yellow bananas that are most often sold in supermarkets are sometimes called “dessert bananas” because they are soft and sweet.

Plantains are a type of banana that are not as sweet and are usually cooked. While not as commonly eaten in North America, plantains are a dietary staple in many tropical regions.

It is believed by many experts that bananas were the first fruit cultivated by humans.

Alexander the Great first came across bananas in India in 327 B.C.

Bananas were introduced to the United States at the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Celebration, where they were sold wrapped in foil for 10 cents each.

Worldwide, bananas are the fourth largest fruit crop.

The average American consumes 28 pounds of bananas per year.

The banana peel is edible, though perhaps not very palatable unless cooked.

About 50 percent of people who are allergic to latex are often also allergic to bananas.

India is the #1 banana producer in the world.

The most popular banana cultivar in the world is the Cavendish. This is the banana most often seen in U.S. and European markets.

Before Cavendish, Gros Michel was the main banana cultivar exported on a mass, commercial scale. In the mid-20th century, Gros Michel was ravaged by Panama disease and is no longer sold commercially.

Panama disease, or Fusarium wilt, is a fungus that attacks banana plants. It was reported in Australia in the 19th century.

It is believed that the Cavendish, like the Gros Michel, will be devastated by Panama disease within 20 years and will no longer be able to be produced commercially. This would be a difficult blow to the banana industry.

Scientists are trying to develop a hybrid, disease-resistant banana.

Chiquita was initially called the United Fruit Company. In the 20th century, they played a controversial role in the politics of Central America, where they had vast holdings. The company earned the nickname of “The Octopus” in the region because they had their hands in so many political pots.

The CIA-sponsored 1954 coup that overthrew the democratically-elected Guatemalan government headed by Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán is believed to be a direct result of influence by the United Fruit Company, which had an antagonistic relationship with the Arbenz government.

In Uganda, bananas are such a big part of the diet that the same word, matooke, is used for both “food” and “banana.”

The pejorative term “banana republic” was coined by American writer O. Henry. He used it in reference to Honduras, but the term became widely used in reference to any Latin American, Caribbean, or African country that was politically unstable, relied heavily on basic agriculture, and was not technologically advanced.

The banana split was invented in 1904 by 23-year-old David Evans Strickler, an employee at the Tassel Pharmacy soda fountain in Latrobe, Pennsylvania.

The song “Yes, We Have No Bananas” was released in 1923 and became a huge hit. It refers to the banana shortage at the time.

In 2001, Britain recorded 300 incidents of injuries related to bananas. The majority of these involved people slipping on banana peels.

Dark Chocolate During Pregnancy May Prevent Preeclampsia

A new study has found that eating dark chocolate during pregnancy may prevent preeclampsia, a potentially life-threatening complication.

Women who ate five or more servings of chocolate each week in their third trimester of pregnancy were 40 percent less likely to develop preeclampsia than those who ate chocolate less than once a week.

Researchers believe this is due to the theobromine content in chocolate. Theobromine is a chemical in chocolate that dilates blood vessels, reduces blood pressure, and prevents hardening of the arteries.

“Our results raise the possibility that chocolate consumption by pregnant women may reduce the occurrence of preeclampsia,” they write. “Because of the importance of preeclampsia as a major complication of pregnancy, replication of these results in other large prospective studies with a detailed assessment of chocolate consumption is warranted.”

Chickens Contaminated with Melamine from China

Chickens have been contaminated with melamine after being fed the same contaminated feed from China that caused the deaths of so many animals in the pet food recall. These chickens have already made it into the human food supply. Though the amount isn’t enough to cause illness according to officials, it does raise alarm bells over the safety of our food supply and whether or not we should be relying upon China for ingredients.

Hundreds of other producers may have similarly sold an unknown amount of contaminated poultry in recent months, they added, painting a picture of much broader consumption of contaminated feed and food than had previously been acknowledged in the widening pet food scandal.

This is causing growing concern about the overall food supply for both humans and pets. The main worry is the quality of ingredients imported from China.

With the new knowledge that the Chinese deliberately put melamine in pet food to boost protein levels, I would prefer not to eat anything that comes from China nor feed it to my pets. Perhaps we as consumers should start demanding to know exactly where the ingredients in our foods come from.

Kanker Leher Rahim

http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanker_leher_rahim

“Thesis Planning”

REVIEW ESTIMATION GENETIC PARAMETERS EVALUATION TOWARD CALVING DIFFICULTY AND BIRTH WEIGHT DAIRY FRIESIAN HOLSTEIN AT FIRST AND LATER PARITIES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THESIS

 

 

By YUDI

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MASTER PROGRAM

THE ANIMAL GENETIC SCIENCE

KANSAI UNIVERSITY

OSAKA – JAPAN

2007

CHAPTER I

 

INTRODUCTION

The aim of study is to describe the genetic parameter for traits reproduction dairy Friesian Holstein. The effective amount of selection pressure, however, in both cases depends on the degree to which the phenotypic variation, on which the selection differential and the selection coefficients are based, is reflected by genetic variation. It seems rather obvious that the changes in the genetic composition of a population from generation to generation, changes of which the shifts in the phenotypic mean will be representative (under a constant environment), are thus a function of the accuracy with which either nature or man recognizes genetic differences on the basis of phenotypic differences between individuals or groups of individuals. Intimations of this fact were apparent to early geneticists. Many of them recognized that a phenotype represents a combination of genetic and environmental effects, of which only the first would contribute to changes in a population, which are attributable to selection. As a single example the viewpoint of Yule (1906) may be cited. In discussing ancestor-offspring correlation, he stated: “A complete theory of heredity should take into account, besides germinal processes, the effect of the environment in modifying the soma obtained from any given type of germ-cell-an effect which is hardly likely to be negligible in the case of such a character as stature.” As early as 1910 Weinberg (1909, 1910) suggested methods of separating genetic and environmental components of total phenotypic variability, but his contribution to the subject was overlooked for many years, sharing the fate of his independent discovery of what was subsequently referred to in genetic literature as Hardy’s binomial (Stern 1943). It was only several years later that Wright (1917 et seq.) and Fisher (1918), independently of each other and apparently unaware of Weiberg’s papers, developed comprehensive techniques of dealing with the problem. The first of Wright’s papers dealt with a case in which the genetic and the environmental types of variation were separated by experimental rather than statistical means.

Similarly the environmental variance of the underlying variate may be independent of the mean genotypic value (the level of incidence or p), but this property may be lost on the p scale. This is apparent from the fact that environmental variance on the p scale, which, of course, is the total variance for any given fixed genotype, is equal to pq, where q =1-p. For the range of genotypes with p values from, say, .35 to .65, the environmental variance is reasonably constant, but in the extreme ranges of p from 0 to 0.1 and from 0.9 to 1.0, it is nearly directly proportional to p and to q respectively. Finally, the categorical nature of the p scale may obscure the finer degrees of measurable variation (as for example age of death, where viability in a set period of time is considered). All of these circumstances vitiate to some extent the utility of the degree of heritability determined on the p scale. Lush, Lamoreux and Hazel (1948) held that probit transformation avoids some of the objections to the p scale. As in the previously noted work of Wright, the transformation is based on the concept of an underlying variate with a normal environmental distribution, whose variance is independent of the genotypic level. The heritability on the probit scale is independent of the threshold value, above which the character will be manifested in individuals whose underlying variate exceeds it, whereas on the p scale heritability viding the genetic variance is not too large compared to the environmental variance) varies approximately in proportion to Zz/(ptj), where is the ordinate of a unit standard normal curve cutting off an area equal to p. The p scale heritability then, in terms of the probability of an individual exhibiting the character, would be low for values of p near zero or unity and relatively high for intermediate values. Robertson and Lerner (1949) have shown that the situation is similar where there are a number of underlying variates, although the distribution of h² is, of course, somewhat different in form.

The probit transformation may be a satisfactory one for the purpose of comparing heritability values but it is not apparent how it can be used for devising optimum selection indexes nor is it at all convenient in many situations for computing expected rates of gain. It appears useful therefore to investigate the conditions, if any, under which serious errors are likely to result from the use of the convenient p scale and the nature and magnitude of such errors. Such an investigation might disclose that the p scale can be used without hesitation in many situations and with some reservations or with corrections in others. The results of such a study might also suggest in a general way the degree to which a scale can deviate from the optimum one without leading to selection indexes that depart seriously from the optimum or to computations of gain that are much in error. Where calculations of the gain from mass selection based on the p scale lead to correct results there is good reason to conclude that calculations of the gain from family and combined selection will also be accurate, as well as that the usual methods for the computation of optimum indexes will also be applicable to a high degree of approximation. The converse of this statement is, however, not necessarily valid. The present investigation is chiefly concerned with a study of the gains that would result from mass selection on an all-or-none basis in comparison to estimates of gains whose computations are based on heritability determinations on the p scale, as well as with gains that would result could selection be based on direct observation of the underlying variate. The bearing of these findings on indexes for combined individual and family selection is discussed briefly.

 

The Mathematical Model

The first step in the proposed investigation involves the comparison of genetic gains computed on the basis of h² determined from the p scale with those expected on the postulate of a normally distributed underlying variate. The assumptions involved are that: (1) There is an underlying variate whose value is the sum of a normally distributed environmental component and an independent normally distributed genetic component; (2) The character is present in all those individuals, and only those, in which the underlying variate exceeds a certain threshold value; and (3) Gene substitutions have individually small and strictly additive effects on the underlying variate.

There is no claim made here that these conditions actually describe the situation with respect to all characters of an all-or-none nature. It is, however, reasonable to believe that a model in which additiveness is the property of the underlying variate (on what will henceforth be referred to as the x scale) approaches actual situations more closely than one based on additive gene action on the p scale.

These traits are subjectively scored categorical traits, influenced by both direct (calf) and maternal effects and with generally low heritabilities reported in the literature (Koots et al., 1994a). Friesian Holstein calving records for purebred dairy calves have not previously been used in the genetic evaluation of dairy breeds. Review index Birth weight record previously has been used as an indicator trait to avoid calving difficulties. High genetic correlations between calving ease and birth weight have been different univariate and bivariate analyses for Friesian Holstein calves born at first and later parities ranged from 0.44 to 0.51 for direct effects and 0.06 to 0.15 for maternal effects. Reported in reviews by Meijering (1984) and Koots et al. (1994b). This relationship is unfavorable because birth weight is positively correlated to growth rate after birth (Mohiuddin, 1993; Koots et al., 1994b).

yI                       xi      0              bI             Zmi     0     mi   Zai     0     ai             ei      =                      +                        +                                  + yj          0      xj    bj          0    Zmj    mj   0     Zmi    aj       ej

There seems to be an optimal value for birth weight with regard to calf viability (Meijering, 1984). Koots et al. (1994b) reported positive genetic correlations between birth weight and perinatal mortality, suggesting that in most studies, birth weight was larger than optimum. Calving difficulty and stillbirth generally have higher incidences in the first parity vs. later parities and have been suggested in some studies to be genetically different, but correlated, traits in first and second-parity cows (Weller et al., 1988; Luo et al., 2002; Steinbock et al., 2003). This information is needed to review genetic parameters via evaluate whether more direct measures of calving difficulty and birth weight should be considered in the genetic evaluation based on field data.

 

1.1. General Background

The Indonesian highly needs of nutrition has a great influence to the pattern and people consume rates. This nutrition is needed for either recovering of organ system or the human body tissues, which may be giving sense to growing up developing optimally. Its source is an animal production. But, precisely, it’s milk. By now, It’s availability really need a great support of various components hopefully can be covering the Indonesian’s less nutrition. The low of milk production caused by less production power of management level and technologies implemented, they did not work as well as what the people hope. In the other words, illustrated the milk production level was not enough yet. Therefore, we need both system and seriously development patterns which actually human resource is the only one answer, especially to develop the dairy cattle.

They are meaningful for producers. It’s obtained if the dairy has a high production power. However, the system and development patterns used, they must be directed that is to form and to produce the dairy with a higher productivity. They could be done by re-evaluating of genetic ability from generation to the next generations through the genetic parameter review and re-evaluation of data calving difficulty or the weight birth as an action before selecting. The calving selection system is a routine program, only through the review record of calving difficulty and weight birth. It’s a way to choose a high productivity of dairy cattle; we have to put them as the main priority.

Genetic can be the explain of the strengthen an animal have an opportunity for turn up of heritability value. Afterwards how highest value and lowest value that we has gotten been the statistical analysis? Apart of primary and especially cases will carrying many thought that exactly. The component structure of the animal body it’s framer by mixing many components in a convenient manner. Its difficulty and different with frame brain and their good component as completed structure.

The genetic constructions objective was building and completing an animal physic. The developed of genetic parameters were convenience of the animal grew up. In additional, the according to researchers and genetics were genetic parameters depends on lifetime an animal and production periods. But, a few studies treating to the repeated discussing genetic parameters the primary reviewing estimation genetic parameters (e.g. calving difficulty and birth weight), and they are finding of the development an animal productions and reproduction system. Attempted, of the genetic by researchers has to shown value predicting and significant. The components genetic constructions using should be the involving of the likelihood statistical theory there are combining variances of data production and than data analyzing. Both data combined that is the primary an animal production to estimates birth weight and they are fill of terms will choice one of many data of the animal production. Therefore, we need one method to overcome and least failure of genetic parameters were its would be reviewing the reverse as a main point to recovering traits and than review will been one of method exactly. Review is good step to repeated result research and towards make up return on results. The definition of the animal genetic parameters that are the mixing compositions from many special characters should be from parents respected.

If our selves view points of genetic parameters are an animal constructions is an abstraction. Hence, constructing abstraction as a matter of facts, it’s a true and so be clearly visible cause we look at that based of view side an animal skeleton and genetic regeneration. The parents as subject to offering something as contributions of the improvement have offspring. We’ll know that in according to researchers both parents can given portion should be about 50% respected from there. But, a few researchers said, it’s the truth of the genetic constructions not always 50% respected; sometime we found should be 75% and 25% respected. May be depending on RNA and DNA chains that there are in the genetic parents. It’s not always the truth a new discuss but it’s really for every an animal parents. Not only in discuss, cause many researchers was give illustrate what both parents should be contribution for offspring? We’ll be the simple answered that is both parents of the truth would be offer something as contribution for offspring genetic ability that alike (50%) respectively. By re-evaluating of genetic ability from generated to the next generation as a way to overcome the lost of new generation, caused calving difficulty and over birth weight.

For various reasons apart have based on the components of the genetic construction becomes primary to the framer and repairing characteristic an animal (offspring). The others supporting of the components by nutrition supply and environmental variety. But before intake food consumptions may be we have to know based analyzed purpose that would be easy in research. Don’t treating to the comment for something if you’re not really sure with your research and discuss. While you have good topic, I think the topic these good case and become clear if we understand in the explanation. Believed with what do you have and than do it as a job can make public interest of your idea. Some people it is indeed so really sure with discuss genetic construction but it is not fixed.

This comment is a Garrick (1997), which assesses challenges to genetic improvement in some agricultural industries in New Zealand. Both comments draw on the outline presented by Clarke et al. (1992) in using a clear and well-accepted framework for describing the key elements of any improvement program. The current paper begins by discussing what is meant by the term “review estimation genetic parameter” and majority with examples one of some different subject discuss, then examines several of data reproduction and production that is calving difficulty and birth weight. May be both subject research are the primary factors to improvement and arising reproduction and production traits. This is new making form to increasing the animal ability in the other word “high efficiency”. Sometime we must been care on ours the animal welfare life, why we especially look at that? The simple comments there are small factors can enough we are making to the mistaken in get sense traits that involved genetic parameters. At three Australian industries seeking to highlight progress in each, to identify particular local challenges, and to explore aspects that will required attentions from the national perspective. Finally, we suggesting some challenges for national programs that will be presented by new statistical and reproductive technologies, and briefly discussing the value of across-industry benchmarking. Value its toward calving difficulty and birth weight Frisien Holstein at first and later parieties can make help to know potentially of reproduction and production tissue. The tissue is right constructions and make up from many nutrients index and formula exactly, its not decreasing of multiple growth up that’s to calving to adult of growth and production. It so hope full thing by farmer and researchers.  They’re can do assistance to gain profit on their wants. Responsible between geneticist, researchers and farmer it will be greats safe to gain production.

1.2. Problem Statement

Problem Identification

Genetic improvement programs at the animal (e.g. dairy cattle production) level are a well-understood process aimed at generating favorable genetic change in the animals. We must been in correct on usually with the aim of improving profit may be it’s not difficulties if we are understand the current development of the estimation genetic parameters. In simple terms this process consists of three key decisions are as: what does breed for (breeding objectives), which animals to breed from (evaluation and selection), and how to mate the selected individuals (mating programs). What, if anything, changes as we adopt one step to recovering “Review Estimation” perspective, and hence what is meant by the terms “Genetic Parameters Calving Difficulty and Birth Weight for first and later parities especially Friesian Holstein”?

Clearly, the simple describes of the major differences between estimation genetic parameter that is evaluation calving difficulty and birth weight perspective and that of Friesian Holstein for first and later parities are:

·         Calving difficulty or in another word “dystocia”. That is trend the majority of selection emphasis in dairy breeding is placed on production and reproduction traits. Meaning selection emphasis is we must been focus in selected the reproduction traits not only of production traits. Both traits reproductive are important in maximizing longevity and reducing losses due to mortality and after stillbirth. Without care and focus of reproduction traits will carrying trouble these on birth density, total populations and operational costs (e.g. labor and veterinary costs).

·         Definition due to both traits that is the truth of complete chains to perspective will consider many decision-makers and the entire breeder-to-reproduction traits of chains.

·         Higher calving difficulty will trend higher losses cost to assistance on birth, cause higher birth weight. In the meantime, we must look at extra to assistance of dairy cattle the majority these on time when an animal will be birth.

For that is we need to review again what can we do to assistance and being avoid repeatedly calving difficulty and than increased to stillbirth. May be not only calf but mother can do it. The difficulty on stillbirth level not always can changes and bias to theoretical. The solution can do that is the management exactly. The concentration of management should be became importance to repaired genetic parameters (e.g. calving difficulty, birth weight, etc.) and than we’ll find a method to improvement an animal reproductive traits. The exactly of management (e.g. breeding management, feeding management, or general management), we’ll make ourselves relax of reproductive cases. Wherever and whoever reproductive cases in an animal herd don’t ever has a bad feeling and than we’ll under pressure of reproductive cases.

1.3. Objectives and Structure of the Thesis

 

Genetic Parameters

Calving Difficulty

 

Dairy farmers around the world are faced with an increasing amount of information and number of choices regarding their breeding programs. Genetic is now available as an easy formed to build up by developed re-evaluation of dairy cattle ability reproductive. In imagine know we could be choose the animal that good conditions. And many technologies to enlarge ability of bulls from a variety of countries with breeding values presented on a variety of traits. However, many non-production traits are not evaluated and presented by all countries. The rate of stillbirths and dystocia (calving difficulty) are examples of traits that are not always evaluated.

These differences have been summarized by Smith (1978) and can affect decision-making in all three-core areas (breeding objectives, evaluation and selection, and mating programs). An additional difference is that national improvement programs have invariably enjoyed some form and amount of governmental support in response to various aspects of market failure, based on the premise that was quite valid until the introduction of BLUP, that genetic improvement programs are both very slow and quite risky, and on the fact that few individual firms could fund the necessary scientific/technical expertise and R&D programs. Responses to these are changing: firstly because attitudes to role of government are changing, and secondly because well-organized improvement programs using BLUP invariably generate proven high rates of genetic change and these in turn stimulate more attention to optimizing the entire program.

Allowing that management and funding of “review as one method to making of improvement” is changing and will likely change further, a simple definition of such programs is that they involve some collective reproduction and production data from the whole industry and possibly producers to reviewing back of result statistical analysis, and there may be some attempt to redistribute profits with the true of the result, either directly through the result of the statistical analysis will corrected be based by theoretical. And we are importing many literate to discussing of cases on genetic parameters. Some form literate will help to reply statistical analysis.

Genetic, environmental, and management factors influence the scores for calving difficulty assigned by dairy personnel at the birth of a calf. These scores are analyzed by use of mixed model methods, which are applicable to categorical traits, to estimate the effect of factors (e.g., herd-year, sex of calf, parity, season, and sire of calf) that affect calving difficulty. The nonlinear methods used in the analysis are based on the standardized threshold model concept (7), which assumes the existence of an underlying unobservable normal variable that is categorized through fixed thresholds. The relationship between scores (1 = no problem to 5 = extreme difficulty) and the underlying continuous scale of risk associated with the unobserved variable. Sires are evaluated for calving ease based on a standardized threshold model (5) at Iowa State University; the evaluation is supported by NAAB. The model includes effects of herd-year, sex of calf, parity of dam, season of birth, birth-year group of sire, and sire of calf (5).

 

The evaluation of each sire is reported to dairy producers as the expected percentage of difficult births (EDB) in primiparous cows. Other information available about the evaluation of each sire includes the effective progeny number, the expected progeny difference (EPD), a 67% confidence interval, and the probability that the EDB is greater than breed average (P. J. Berger, 1990, unpublished data). Scores for calving difficulty are each 1 unit apart on the observed scale; however, differences between consecutive scores on the underlying scale of risk may be <1 or >1 unit apart. Therefore, thresholds or points on the continuous scale of risk marking the transition between outcomes for calving ease are estimated as part of the analysis. Herd-years are included in the threshold model analysis to account for 1) different uses of the scale for scoring of calving difficulty and 2) natural variability in the frequency of dystocia among herds and years within herds. Estimates of risk factors can be severely biased by ignoring the effect of herd-year, particularly if herd effects are large. Consideration of herds as fixed or random effects remains debatable. A threshold model with herds as fixed effects can give arbitrarily small or large estimates of herd effects when all scores for a subclass fall in the same category (7). The problem can be avoided by deletion of subclasses with all scores in the same category Q, treatment of herds as random variables (7), or fixing of the numerical limit for estimates (9). Random herd-years seem to be more appropriate for the national calving ease evaluation because more effective use is made of all information rather than a censored subset that is not representative of the frequencies of scores for dystocia in the population.

 

Other adjustments are also necessary: season, because dystocia is more frequent during winter than during summer; sex of calf, because males have a higher frequency of dystocia than females; parity, because primiparous cows have the highest frequency of dystocia, followed by second parity cows, and third and later parity cows in decreasing proportions; and birth-year group of sire, because the average genetic merit of sires can change over time. A fixed genetic base was implemented in 1990. Currently, progeny of all bulls born before 1977 determines the genetic base. The threshold model makes possible comparison of sires with different frequencies of progeny in one or more of the discrete categories for calving difficulty. Estimates of sire effects or EPD are the primary indication of the genetic merit of each sire for calving ease. The EPD are relative to the underlying mean of all sires in the population. A standardized threshold model (5, 7) is used; therefore, the EPD are distributed on a scale with a mean of 0 and a variance of 1, which is similar to the normal distribution that forms the basis for theoretical statistics. The EPD are estimated by use of progeny information from herds throughout the US. All progeny from all sires contribute to the estimation procedure, which is based on differences among sire progeny means for dystocia within herd-years, and these differences are pooled across all herd-years. Therefore, comparisons among sires in the population are direct and indirect.

 

Sires with progeny in the same herd-years are compared directly. Two sires are indirectly compared when they each have progeny in the same herd-year as a third sire. For example, the difference in sire progeny means between sire A and sire B in one herd and sires A and C in a second herd, (B-A) – (C – A) = B – C, gives the desired result. Sire A is a reference sire in this example and because data are from a large AI population, many reference sires provide comparisons among sires across herds and years. Calving difficulty scores for progeny of all sires and pedigree information are vital parts of the evaluation procedure for calving ease.

 

Pedigree information is a supplemental source of genetic information to actual progeny records but does not replace actual progeny records. Sires, generally those with larger progeny groups, contribute to the evaluation of sons and grandsons that are usually young AI bulls with fewer progeny. This pedigree information is incorporated into the analysis by use of the inverse of the matrix of relationships among all bulls with progeny, their sires, and maternal grandsires (8).

 

Calving Ease

 

Dystocia context are the several of the partus processing on female. Dystocia is not an all-or-none trait. Variation exists within sire progeny groups. Easy calving sires may have some progeny that are born with difficulty. Difficult calving sires can have some progeny that are born without assistance. Unlike other traits with genetic predictions expressed on a continuous scale of measurement (e.g., PTA for milk yield), EPD for calving ease are in standard deviation units and are difficult to interpret, particularly when the original data were scores of 1 to 5. The method of reporting each sire’s evaluation helps dairy producers understand the expected risk of using a sire chosen for easy or difficult calving and addresses their needs in planned mating to minimize calving difficulty of future progeny. The evaluation of each sire is reported as the EDB (i.e., the percentage of all births in the future scored 4 or 5 when the sire is mated to heifers). The EDB is calculated by transforming a linear function of the solutions from the threshold model (e.g. EPD) to a scale of probabilities. Figure 3 gives the EDB range and the frequency of sires with these values for the 20,195 sires evaluated during 1992. Some sires may have limited progeny information, particularly young sires, and their evaluation for calving ease is subject to change as more progeny information becomes available for later evaluations. The reliability of each sire’s evaluation for calving ease indicates the amount of information (i.e., from progeny records and the pedigree) available to determine the predicted merit for calving ease. Reliability is calculated by using the procedures reported by Berger (1). Reliability is properly used to choose among bulls with similar predicted genetic values for calving ease.

 

Dairy producers are encouraged to choose a bull with a higher reliability if the choice is between two bulls with the same EDB for calving ease. Of course, considerations other than calving ease affect the choice of bulls for breeding (e.g., PTA for milk yield). Therefore, a dairy producer may choose a bull with lower reliability for calving ease to achieve higher performance for other traits. In this case, bulls with lower reliability for calving ease should be used less frequently than other bulls of equal genetic merit for calving ease and higher reliability.

 

The analysis is based on direct the correct of main point from statistical result. But statistical result get is in form skore that is heritability value (h²), by heritability value we can prediction main position character’s for an animal with compared   comparisons among with progeny in the same herd-years. Sires in herd-years without progeny of other AI sires in the same herd-years contribute little information to the analysis. Therefore, it is important to have as much information as possible from all sires in the same herd-years. Bulls achieve higher reliability of their genetic prediction for calving ease because their progeny are distributed over many herd-years with the progeny of other sires. The relationship between reliability and the effective progeny number, the number of progeny for a sire with directs comparisons with progeny of other sires in the evaluation.

 

Dystocia evaluations are intended to increase the use of AI for heifers. Bulls can be selected so that the likelihood of a difficult calving is reduced, When bulls chosen for easy calving are selected for mating to heifers, this selection should follow or be within groups of bulls of comparable genetic merit for traits with higher economic value than that for dystocia (e.g., milk yield). The sire evaluations for calving ease can be used to improve the economic efficiency of herd breeding programs without giving up genetic improvement for traits that are part of the selection objective. Yearly mean EDB of bulls that are available for breeding (unweighted) and the mean EDB of bulls used in breeding programs (i.e., weighted by the number of progeny). Breeding organizations do not select bulls for calving ease, which is confirmed by the relatively constant unweighted mean EDB. Because the weighted mean EDB is lower than the unweighted mean, bulls chosen for easy calving are used more frequently than their contemporaries with higher EDB. Therefore, the opportunity to reduce calving difficulty has been an effective incentive for producers to mate more heifers to AI bulls. National in scope and international in implication, the NAAB Calving Ease Sire Evaluation program benefits AI organizations, dairy producers in the US, and dairy producers in other countries who routinely import semen, embryos, and animals.

 

Birth Weight

Birth weight will changes for every partus and every time. Birth weight can helped to the explaining capability of the genetic parameters concept. Some researchers were back up birth weight to data and their do it for every time. We know that we will found the difference an animal of birth weight for every time. Calves will has birth weight ….

 

1.4.    Conceptual Framework

In all animal breeding, and dairy cattle are no exception, no new genetic material is created. Rather, it is simply a matter of sorting or rearranging the many factors already present in the male and female gametes. These factors are referred to as genes. They are contained in the chromosomes of the sperm of the male and the egg of the female.

 

Dairy animals have 30 pairs of chromosomes in each cell. The number of genes per chromosomes is not definitely known; estimates are that there may be as many as 30.000 genes for dairy cattle. These genes are responsible for how the animal looks and produces.

 

When the sperm and egg unite, the new cell formed contains 30 pairs of chromosomes, or a total of 60 chromosomes, half of which come from the sperm (male) and half from the egg (female). What determines which genes and which chromosomes are to be passed on to the new cell is still a relatively dark secret.

 

If our self view side of genetic parameters is an animal constructions is an abstraction. Hence, these  as a matter of facts, it’s a true and so be clearly visible cause we look at that based of view side an animal skeleton and genetic regeneration. The parents as subject to offering something as contributions of improvement has offspring. Well to know and in according to researchers both parents can given portion should be about 50% respected from there. But, a few researchers said, it’s the truth of the genetic constructions not always 50% respected, sometime we found should be 75% and 25% respected. May be depending on RNA and DNA chains that there are at the both parents. It’s not always the truth a new discuss but it’s really for every an animal parents. 

 

For many years, genetic improvement of the U.S. dairy cattle was focused on identifying and selecting an animal superior (cow’s), with little attention given to the evaluation of bulls. As improved methods were developed, dairy producers who used them gained some advantage in rate of genetic improvement over their competitors. In order, the following methods of genetic evaluation were used in the past: (1) lactation record, (2) daughter average, (3)  daughter-dam comparison, (4) herdmate comparison, and (5) contemporary comparison. Each of these is briefed in the sections that follow.

 

The United States dairy industry and consumers have benefited greatly from the national research program on genetic improvement of dairy cattle conducted by the Animal Improvement Programs Laboratory (AIPL), Agricultural Research at the land-grant universities. Genetic evaluation of bulls (Sire Summaries) and cow (Cow indexes) emanating from this research have been the primary source of information for identifying animals with superior genetic merit for yield. We’re can look out and comparison, what can do it to repaired and to developed genetic science by researchers from an Indonesia? May be their has good concepts and good procedural to improvement by Artificial Insemination and the first of the way that is selection offspring from superior parents (male or female).  They’re choosing of Artificial Insemination, as a means of dairy cattle improvement, is now accepted and utilized worldwide. The increased use of outstanding sires to enhance production potential, control certain genital diseases transmitted through natural service, and encourage general mass improvement is well recognized. 

The people highly need for information and knowledge especially such as the recently not relevant on new conceptualities and research results. It’s to talk of convenience on especially knowledge conceptualization that’s become fail, very difficult, that is not connected and than we founding only mis-appreciate the facts. The people asked that what meant of the genetic conceptualization? This is a main conceptual that papers theory and the results of the data analysis. That’s true, we must been the conceptual about genetic parameters. But know, the genetic parameter that we know and simple definition “the knowledge is associated by pedigree theoretical”, that is true. More than it is of definition exactly for know that is not easy. Why I say, about these?   

Although the majority of selection emphasis in dairy breeding is placed on production, many non-production traits are important in maximizing longevity and reducing losses due to mortality and illness. Unfortunately, many non-production traits are influenced more by environment and less by genetic ability thereby reducing heritabilities of these traits. As well, there is often a maternal genetic effect that complicates evaluation and selection on these traits. Furthermore, genetic variability of health and reproductive traits may contain more non-additive (non-transmittable) genetic components, which further reduce effectiveness of traditional selection for these traits. Regardless, traits such as stillbirths and dystocia do constitute financial losses to the dairy farmer and should be considered in breeding and management programs.

The normal range of heritabilities for stillbirths and associated traits were given by Philipsson et al. (1979). As shown, heritability of stillbirths is very low, particularly for cows (.00 to .02), and therefore, direct selection against stillbirths would be relatively ineffective. Fortunately, genetic correlations with other traits do exist. A particularly strong correlation (0.6 to 0.8) exists between stillbirths and dystocia and a moderate correlation (0.4) exists between stillbirths and birthweight. These associated traits do present other alternatives to selecting directly against stillbirths. For example, selection for calving ease (selecting against dystocia) instead of rate of stillbirths, provides many advantages. Heritability of direct and maternal calving ease is 0.11 and 0.12, respectively (Dwyer, 1984), which is several times higher than heritability for stillbirth rate. Since rate of stillbirths and calving ease are highly correlated, it is more efficient to select indirectly for rate of stillbirths by selecting for calving ease. According to Meijering (1985):

“… it is questionable whether sire evaluation for stillbirths is worth the effort at all in the present situation, considering the extremely small sire variance. For, even if habitability was three times as high as presently estimated, indirect selection through dystocia would be as efficient as direct selection for stillbirth given the present effective progeny group sizes and genetic correlations.”

In addition to more effective protection against stillbirths, selection for calving ease also reduces the associated costs of assisted calving, longer days open, and reduced milk production of the dam.

Several non-genetic factors have been examined for their impact on stillbirth rate and calving performance, the most important being the dam’s parity, sex of calf, nutritional status of dam, and season of calving. Heifers have been found to have stillbirth rates 2 to 4 time higher than cows (Van Dieten, 1963; Grommers et al., 1965; Laster and Gregory, 1973). Sex of calf is thought to have a significant effect on calving ease, but has little effect on stillbirths (Cloppenburg, 1966; Philipsson, 1976; Hassig and Scholte, 1979). Also, heifers or cows with improper nutritional regimes may experience reduced calving performance and consequently higher stillbirth rates (Arnett et al., 1971; Lowman, 1979). Slightly higher rates of stillbirths have been reported in the summer months (Lindstrom and Vilva (1977), presumably due to lower surveillance rate when animals are in pasture.

In light of the very low heritability of stillbirths and the significant effect of many non-genetic and environmental factors, raw mean stillbirth rates associated with individual sires could be extremely misleading. In most cases, the reasons some sires will appear to have more stillbirths are due to non-genetic factors or by chance. When progeny groups sizes become large (500 daughters) the probability that high numbers of stillbirths are caused by chance are reduced. Simple Chi-squared tests could be used to illustrate the effect of small sample sizes on significance of average number of stillbirths. However, systematic non- genetic factors including parity, season of calving, or breed interactions cannot be ruled out. The proper procedure to evaluate sire differences for stillbirth rate involves careful BLUP sire evaluation techniques, but with a low heritability, as in this case, very large progeny group sizes would be needed to determine any differences between sires. Unfortunately, large progeny group sizes reduce the number of bulls that can be tested and, therefore, reduces the rate of genetic progress for production traits. Furthermore, standard BLUP evaluations assume multivariate normality of data (Henderson, 1973), and with categorical variates such as dystocia and stillbirth, this assumption is not met, there by reducing the probability that animals are correctly ranked (Gianola, 1980; Portnoy, 1982).

Because there is a positive correlation of 0.4 between calf size and stillbirth, the possibility exists that if the female being bred is smaller than average or the calf size is larger than average, the rate of stillbirths could increase. This could be the situation if the dam is a heifer as mentioned above. This could also occur if a significant difference for size exists between breeds. In many populations around the world, North-American Holsteins have been used on smaller varieties of the Friesian breed or other breeds. Because of the size difference between breeds and the effect of heterosis on calf size, initial crosses between breeds should be made carefully. For example, only cows or larger heifers should be considered during the first few generations of introducing the larger Holstein strain. Also, North-American sires are routinely evaluated for calving ease making selection against dystocia possible. Nutrition programs emphasizing rapid growth of heifers may also reduce stillbirths due to calving difficulties. Size has increased in the Canadian Holstein breed over the last 15 years, but better nutrition program for heifers were also emphasized during the same period. As a result, the stillbirth rate for heifers has fluctuated but remained on average below 7%. The stillbirth rate for cows has remained much more constant with an average of 2.9%.

 

 

 

1.5.     

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE OBSERVE

 

2.1.    General History of Genetic an Animal

2.2.    General Manner of Genetic Parameters

2.3.    Previously of Researches

 

2.4.    Specification of Genetic Parameters

2.4.1.      Calving Difficulty

Calving difficulty of Holsteins has a major economic impact on the dairy cattle industry. The National Association of Animal Breeders sponsors genetic evaluation of AI sires for calving ease. The AI organizations and dairy records processing centers collect data from herds that have progeny of AI bulls. Genetic predictions of merit for calving ease have been available for Holstein AI bulls in the US since 1978. A threshold model was implemented during 1988. The threshold model adjusts for the effects of herd-year, season, sex of calf, parity, and birth-year group of sire to predict the genetic merit of each sire for calving ease. Pedigree information from sires, sons, and grandsons is also included in the analysis to improve the reliability of genetic predictions for bulls that have pedigree data available. Each sire’s genetic prediction for calving ease is reported as the expected percentage of difficult births of primiparous cows. National in scope, genetic predictions for calving ease are used internationally by breeders of dairy cattle to minimize the risk of difficult births of primiparous cows and to increase the use of AI for young cows.

 

Genetic improvement programs have been applied to a wide number of traits of dairy cattle. Although the selection objective is usually limited to increased production, other traits can improve the economic efficiency of individual herd breeding programs. Dystocia, defined as delayed and difficult parturition, has a major economic impact on the dairy cattle industry (4, 6, 12). The purpose of this paper is to focus on current policies and procedures for the genetic evaluation of AI sires in the US for calving ease. A full discussion of technical details is not possible here in.

 

Brief History

 

Research on dystocia began in 1972 under the direction of Pollak and Freeman (11) at Iowa State University with data provided by Midwest Breeders Cooperative, which is now 21st Century Genetics (Shawano, WI). Select Sires (Plain City, OH) also collected some early data. Pollak (10) analyzed the first data on dystocia in Holsteins and later identified many of the factors associated with dystocia (e.g., season of birth, sex of calf, parity of dam, and sire of calf) (11). During 1977, the National Association of Animal Breeders WAAB) began sponsoring the evaluation of Holstein AI sires in the United States for calving ease. Initially, evaluations were computed within AI organizations. Beginning in 1980, the evaluations were computed across all AI organizations to allow inter-organizational comparisons. Scores for calving ease were analyzed until 1987 with a BLUP sire model (2) that included the inverse of the relationship matrix among sires. An ordered categorical analysis that uses a threshold model was implemented during 1988 (3, 5). Reliability of each sire’s evaluation,

 

2.4.2.      Birth Weight

CHAPTER III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

 

 

3.1. Choice of Data

 

Field data on birth weight, and calving performance for purebred Friesian Holstein cattle were obtained from the Dairy Industry or department of animal breeding, which is responsible for the Friesian Holstein dairy recording scheme. In total, the available calving data included information on calving traits for 3000 calves born from 2001 to 2004, and the weight data included information on birth weight for 2500 Friesian Holstein calves born from 2001 to 2004. Records where the calf was the result of embryo transfer or not embryo transfer single born were excluded from the analyses, as were observations of calves with cows older than 168 mo of age. Observations on birth weight outside the accepted range of 18 to 75 kg were discarded. The majority of discarded observations were excluded because of too small herd-year contemporary groups. After these edits, the final data set included information on calving traits for 2700 Friesian Holstein calves and on birth weight for 2200 Friesian Holstein Dairy.

 

Data Structure

Relationship information dated back to animals born in the late 1990s. The identities of cow and sire were known for 100% and close to 100%, respectively, of all calves with observations. The identity was also known for more than 98% of maternal grandsires and grandcowes of all calves with observations. Records of parity number were not available and had to be calculated from the full data set. If a cow was older than 44 mo at the birth first recorded calf, the observation was grouped with those from later parities. In the data average ages of cows at first and later parities 24 mo and 60 mo, respectively for Friesian Holstein. The age of the cow at first parity was grouped as 20 to 25, and 26 to 30, and 31 to 35, and 36 to 44 mo of age, and for later parities, the classes were less than 42 to 54, 55 to 66, 67 to 78, and 79 to 168 mo of age at calving. Four season of calving (November to February, March and April, May and June, and July to October) were used in the analyses. Birth herd–yerd contemporary groups were small, with the median size ranging from four records for Friesian Holstein, three records. The ratios of numbers of male and female calves in first and later parities, respectively, were 0,97 and 1,06.

 

3.2. Traits Definitions

 

Birth Weight. Birth weight was recorded in kilograms up to 4 d after calving, either by the farmers or by a technician from the dairy recording-scheme.

Calving Difficulty. Calving performance was recorded in the Holstein dairy-recording scheme as easy calving (unassisted), normal calving (assisted by one person), normal calving with malpresentation of the calf, difficult calving (assisted by more than one person), difficult calving with malpresentation of the calf, caesarean section, or calving induced by hormone injection. The frequency of caesarean sections and induced calvings was calving ability and birth weight 377 very low (<0.5% in all cases). Therefore, in this case we make to the grouped these together with difficult calvings and assigned the value 1 for unassisted calvings, 2 for normal calvings, and 3 for difficult calvings. Malpresentations were not treated separately (i.e., these were included with other normal or difficult calvings). Calves without a record of calving difficulty score (<0.01%) were assumed to have had an easy calving. No transformation of scores for calving difficulty was made since the use of equally spaced scores has been suggested to have negligible effects on heritability estimates (Naazie et al., 1991; Abdel-Azim and Berger, 1999).

 

3.3. Estimation of Genetic Parameters

3.3.1. Statistical Methods

 

Estimation of genetic and environmental parameters was performed by two-trait analysis using calving difficulty trait along with birth weight. The different sex (grandcows and grandsires) were analyzed separately. Both univariate and bivariate linear animal models were used. The basic bivariate model for estimating variance components for first parity traits was:

 

 

 

 

 

where yi and yj are observed birth weight, calving difficulty score. The vector [b’i b’j] contains for all traits the fixed effects of herd-year, season, and combination of sex of the calf and age group of the cow. For birth weight, the fixed effect of age at weighing in days was included in the model. The X and Z matrices are incidence matrices relating the observations to the fixed and random effects, respectively; m is a vector of maternal genetic effects; a is a vector of additive genetic effects of the animals; and e is a vector of random residuals. The models for later parity traits also included a random permanent environmental effect of the cow, pe. For random effects, the means were zero and the variances were as follows:

 

 

 

_

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Where A is the relationship matrix. For bivariate analyses with first-and later-parity traits, the permanent environmental effect of cow was only included for later parities, and residual covariances were assumed to be zero since the traits were measured on different animals. Covariances between genetic and environmental effects were assumed to be zero, and no variances due to dominance or epistatic effects were assumed to exist. Covariances were estimated using the average information algorithm (Jensen et al., 1997) for restricted maximum likelihood included in the DMU package (Jensen and Madsen, 1994). The convergence criterion was chosen so that the norm of update vector for the covariance components was less than 10⁻⁴. Asymptotic standard errors of covariance components were computed from the inverse average information matrix. Standard errors of genetic correlations were obtained by Taylor series expansions (Madsen and Jensen, 2000).

 

Heritabilities. Direct and maternal heritabilities on the observable scale were calculated as σ²a/σ²P and σ²m/σ²P, respectively, where σ²P= σ²m+σa,m + σ²a + σ²e for all traits in the first parity and σ²P= σ²pe + σ²m+ σa,m + σ²a+ σ²e for later parities. Heritabilities on the underlying continuous scale were approximated from the heritabilities on the observable scale to enable comparisons with other studies, using a transformation described by Gianola (1982):

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

where η_k is the score for response, π_k is the probability of response in the kth category (k = 1, 2, . . ., m), and z_k is the ordinate of a standard normal density function corresponding to thresholds between categories k and k + 1. For two response categories as for birth weight, it reduces to: h²_underlying = h²_observed [π(1 -π)]/z², as shown in Dempster and Lerner (1949).

 

Implementation and software. Variance-covariance parameters for all models were estimated using manual computed or the software package, ASREML (Gilmour et al., 2001). Heritabilities (h²) and all correlations (genetic-rg, residual-re, and phenotypic-rp) were computed using estimated variance-covariance matrices. In ASREML, it was possible to get standard errors for all estimated parameters or its ratios. In total, there were 61 blocks of genetic analyses (31 for univariate and 30 for bivariate analyses). It was not our aim to compute correlations (covariances) among type traits or between calving difficulty and birth weight at first and later parities.

 

Chapter IV

RESULT AND DISCUSS

 

 

Chapter V

CONCLUTIONS AND SUGGESTS

 

 

 

References

Arnett, D.W., Holland, G.L., and Totusek, R., 1971. Some effects of obesity in beef females. J. Anim. Sci., 33: 1129-1136.

Cloppenburg, R., 1966. Geburtsverlauf bei nachkommen von Schwarzbunten bullen einer westfalischen Besamungsstation. Thesis, Georg-August University, Gottingen.
Dwyer, D.J., 1984. The effect of selection bias on calving ease evaluation of Holstein sires. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
Gianola, D., 1980. A method of sire evaluation for dichotomies. J. Anim. Sci. 51: 1266-1271.
Grommers, F.J., Brands, A.F.A., and Schoenmakers, A., 1965. Mortaliteit van kalveren bij de partus van Nederlandse runderen. Tijdschr. Diergeneeskd., 90: 231-244.
Hassig, H. and Schlote, W., 1979. Untersuchungen zum Geburtsverlauf bei Fleckvieh-farsen. Zuchtungskunde, 51: 275-288.
Henderson, C.R., 1973. Sire evaluation and genetic trends. In: Proc. Anim. Breeding Genetics Symp. in Honour of J.L. Lush. Am. Soc. Anim. Sci. and Am. Dairy Sci. Assoc., Champaign, IL, pp. 10-41.
Laster, D.B. and Gregory, K.E., 1973. Factors influencing peri- and early postnatal calf mortality. J. Anim. Sci., 37: 1092-1097.
Lindstrom, U.B. and Vilva, V., 1977. Frequency of stillborn Calves and its association with production traits in Finnish cattle breeds. Z. Tierz. Zuchtgsbiol., 94: 27-43.
Lowman, B.G., 1979. Pre-calving management and feeding of the beef cow in relation to calving problems and viability of the calf. In: B. Hoffmann, I.L. Mason and J. Schmidt (Editors). Calving Problems and Early Viability of the Calf. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, pp. 392-407.
Meijering, A. 1984. Dystocia and stillbirth in cattle – A review of causes, relations and implications. Livest. Prod. Sci., 11: 143-177.
Meijering, A. 1985. Sire evaluation for calving traits by Best Linear Unbiased Prediction and nonlinear methodology. Z. Tierzuchtg. Zuchtgsbiol. 102: 95- 105.
Philipsson, J., 1976. Studies on calving difficulty, stillbirth and associated factors in Swedish cattle breeds. II. Effects of non-genetic factors. Acta Agric. Scand., 26: 165-174.
Philipsson, J., Foulley, J.L., Lederer, J., Liboriussen, T. and Osinga, A., 1979. Sire evaluation standards and breeding strategies for limiting dystocia and stillbirth. Report of an EEC/E.A.A.P. working group. Livest. Prod. Sci., 6: 111-127.
Portnoy, S. 1982. Maximizing the probability of correctly ordering random variables using linear predictors. J. Multivar. Anal. 12: 256-269.
Van Dieten, S.W.J., 1963. Mortaliteit van kalveren bij de partus à terme van MRIJ-runderen. Thesis, University of Utrecht. The Netherlands.

 

“Putih atau Hitam?”

Pada umumnya manusia memiliki kemampuan lebih mendapatkan satu pandangan sekilas tentang peristiwa sekitar sepersepuluh detik sebelum peristiwa itu benar-benar terjadi dalam kehidupan. Hal ini cenderung karena adanya refleksi mekanisme di belakang yang dapat menjelaskan mengapa kita sering tertipu oleh ilusi optis.

Peneliti Renssealer Polytechnic Institute di New York AS, Mark Changizi, menjelaskan berdasarkan pengamatannya. Changizi mengambil kesimpulan kalau semua itu dimulai dengan adanya kelambatan saraf yang terjadi dan dialami oleh hampir semua orang saat-saat terjaga. Ketika cahaya jatuh ke retina mata, sekitar sepersepuluh detik cahaya itu pergi sebelum otak sempat menerjemahkan sinyal-sinyal itu ke dalam persepsi visual tentang objek yang citranya terkirim via cahaya tadi.

Para ilmuwan sduah mengetahui mengenai adanya kelmbatan saraf ini, namun mereka masih memperdebatkan bagaimana persisnya mekanisme dalam diri kita mengompensasi keterlambatan saraf, sistem visual kita telah ditingkatkan kemampuannya sehingga mampu membangkitkan gambaran yang akan terjadi sepersepuluh detik ke depan.

“Explaining illusions” Jurnal Cognitife Science edisi Mei-Juni 2008; Changizi kemudian mengklaim bahwa cara pandang yang sama dapat menjelaskan fenomena yang berkaitan dengan ilusi optikal. “Ilusi terjadi ketika otak kita mencoba mempersiapkan masa depan, tetapi pesepsi itu tidak berhubungan dengan realitas,” Ungkap Changizi. 

Teori yang digunakan oleh Changizi untuk melihat masa depan seringkali disebut sebagai teori ilusi visual termasuk yang paling umum, teori ilusi geometris yang melibatkan bentuk, Changizi menggunakan contoh ilusi Hering. Dalam teori ini terlihat garis-garis atau jari-jari sepeda mengitari titik pusat, dengan garis-garis vertikal pad asisi lain dari pusat ini, yang disebut dengan titik lenyak (vanishing point).

Adanya pemusatan (converging) garis-garis ke arah titik lenyap (jari-jari) merupakan isyarat yang memanipulasi otak kita ke dalam pemikiran bahwa kita bergerak maju ke depan. Seperti kita dalam dunia nyata, dimana bingkai pintu (sepasang garis lurus) tampak bergerak mundur saat kita bergerak melewatinya, dan kita mencoba untuk mempersepsi apa yang akan terlihat seperti berada di masa depan secar asekejap.” Ungkap Changizi kepada Livescience.

—-oOOOo—-

Rencana, Pelaksanaan, dan Evaluasi Kampanye

By Dean Kazoleas

 

Bab ini bertujuan menyajikan rencana, pelaksanaan dan evaluasi kampanye. Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut dikemukakan teori-teori dasar dan wawasan-wawasan profesional ke dalam rencana kampanye yang efektif, sebagaimana dijelaskan dalam beberapa teori yang digunakan untuk merancang (desain) dan melaksanakan (implementasi) hubungan-hubungan kemasyarakatn (publik), perdagangan (komersial), politis dan kampanye-kampanye masalah-masalah sosial. Tujuan ini bukan untuk melengkapi daftar teori-teori yang dapat dipergunakan (karena bisa saja menjadi tidak mungkin) tetapi, bisa juga, untuk menyediakan seperangkat teori yang menjelaskan keberhasilan atau kegagalan pesan-pesan kampanye guna mencapai tujuan kampanye itu sendiri, khususnya yang dapat dimanfaatkan dengan mudah untuk merencanakan, membentuk, dan melaksanakan strategi-strategi kampanye.

Dalam bab ini disajikan konsep-konsep sebagai berikut:

·         Pentingnya Teori dan Penelitian mengenai Kampanye

·         Pendekatan Sistematis dan Profesional dalam kampanye

·         Model-model pelaksanaan Kampanye: RACE dan ROPE

·         Teori-teori Pendukung Kampanye yang Efektif

·         McGuire’s Matrix

·         VALS

·         Situational theory

·         Agenda-setting theory

·         Issue-attention cycle theory

·         Law of public opinion

Para perencana komunikasi kampanye, khususnya public relation (PR) profesional, biasanya dideskripsikan sebagai poros (master of “spin”) atau manipulator persepsi publik. Oleh karena itu, PR profesional kadang-kadang digambarkan sebagai pemanipulasi perasaan, pikiran dan tindakan publik Amerika misalnya menggunakan film seperti Wag the Dog.  Sayangnya, observasi-observasi disini hanya mengembangkan satu persepsi bahwa opini publik dan prilaku mereka mudah dimanipulasi dan pelaku-pelaku kampanye profesional hanya menghadapi kesulitan-kesulitan yang tidak berarti untuk mencapai tujuan kampanyenya seperti yang diharapkan klien-kliennya. Tidak satupun yang menyimpang jauh dari kebenaran, karena sikap, keyakinan dan prilaku serta citra sulit untuk diciptakan dan lebih sulit untuk berubah! Dalam upaya memahami pembuatan kampanye yang sukses, syarat pertamanya adalah pengetahuan yang bersumber dari penelitian dan dukungan teori-teori.

 

Bagaimana Teori Dan Penelitian Mendukung

Perencanaan Kampanye?

Pertanyaan di atas selalu muncul dalam pikiran para profesional yang akan melakukan kampanye, mereka tertarik untuk menciptakan dan mengelola sebuah kampanye. Jawaban untuk pertanyaan itu sebenarnya sangat mudah. Dasar-dasar teoritis dan penelitian penting dengan target memaksimalkan kemungkinan untuk meraih sukses dalam kampanye, target dimaksud adalah jumlah audiens. Hal ini tentu saja dapat memberikan gambaran nyata mengenai sejumlah besar kampanye-kampanye yang dilakukan tetapi kampanye tersebut tidak dilandasi dengan penelitian yang rasional untuk mencapai keberhasilan dan biasanya hasil kampanye tersebut dapat dipastikan tidak akan memuaskan. Persoalannya adalah kampanye-kampanye yang biasanya dilakukan tanpa didasari penelitian maupun dasar-dasar teori akan memerlukan pembiayaan luar biasa besarnya,  sehingga berdampak pada kehidupan bisnis dan berimplikasi pada kehidupan sosial kemasyarakatan, kondisi seperti ini dapat berlangsung selama berminggu-minggu, berbulan-bulan dan bahkan lamanuya bisa mencapai tahunan, untuk itu banyak sekali persoalan yang harus ditangani sebelum kampanye berlangsung. (Shooting from the hip).

Pada saat melakukan perencanaan dan pelaksanaan sejumlah kampanye, manajer kampanye seharusnya tidak lupa mencoba untuk memperkirakan berapa besar uang yang diperlukan-biasanya milyaran-jumlah tersebut dipengaruhi pula oleh identitas yang mendasari brand atau nama sebuah organisasi, akan menjadi masalah jika perancang kampanye menciptakan kegagalan dalam berkampanye dan atau kampanye yang disampaikan tidak tepat sasaran. Pada saat itu, waktu, uang, karir dan reputasi menyertai kampanye, untuk itu dapat diasumsikan bahwa seorang ahli strategi kampanye akan berusaha memaksimalkan kemungkinan-kemungkinan guna mencapai keberhasilan dan meminimalkan kemungkinan kegagalan keberhasilan. Penggunaan teori bisnis dan teori komunikasi serta metode-metode penelitian sehingga memungkinkan kita untuk mendapatkan gambaran strategi apa yang kita perlukan dan strategi itu apakah akan efektif dan atau apakah strategi tersebut dapat dimodifikasi untuk dapat memaksimalkan harapan yang kita inginkan.

Pada saat anda membaca paragrap ini perhatikan juga informasi tentang bagaimana suatu struktur mendukung keefektifan kampanye, salah satu contoh  paling baik yaitu adanya premis tentang komunikasi yang disajikan dalam bab pertama buku ini. Komunikasi dimaksud adalah komunikasi strategis dan relational.  Untuk itu kita akan mempelajari bagaimana implementasi kampanye dengan rancangan pesan-pesan, sasarannya adalah pemikiran, menciptakan dan mempertahankan pola-pola komunikasi serta membangun kepribadian, sosial kemasyarakatan, maupun hubungan-hubungan profesional yang semuanya merupakan dasar dan kekuatan seperti diasumsikan pada komunikasi bisnis yang dilakukan melalui kampanye.(Cutlip, Center, & Broom, 2000, Guth, & Marsh, 2000, Newscom, Turk & Kruckeberg, 2000, Wilcox et al, 1998; McElreath, 1996).

Mahasiswa yang memahami kekuatan teoritikal komunikasi kampanye seharusnya tidak merasa terkejut atau bingung ketika harus melakukan presentasi dihadapan sejumlah masa dengan topik-topik yang menggunakan teori-teori komunikasi masa, komunikasi manusia, opini publik ilmu politik, psikologi, dan sosiologi. Untuk menjelaskan dan memprediksi proses-proses dalam perencanaan dan pelaksanaan apapun jenis kampanyenya. Yang menjadi inti pada kampanye hubungan publik yaitu adanya pemahaman bahwa kampanye hubungan publik berbeda dengan iklan dan tentu saja berbeda jauh dengan kampanye marketing, kampanye hubungan publik berfokus pada hubungan-hubungan dengan stakeholder utama (key stakeholders), komunikasi ini biasanya dilakukan menggunakan strategi penyebaran pesan tidak terkendali (uncontrolled message dissemination) misalnya  menggunakan berita-berita atau media masa, (dimana pembiayaan lebih sedikit dan terjadi penambahan kredibilitas karena dilakukan oleh pengamat yang netral) selain itu dapat menggunakan berbagai variasi strategi dan taktik baik langsung maupun tidak langsung.

 

Tidak Satupun “Lepas dari Kemodernan”:

Apakah Pendekatan Sistematis dan Etika dalam Kampanye?

Salah satu hambatan luar biasa sulit untuk dihadapi dalam komunikasi kampanye adalah bagaimana upaya mengembangkan pendekatan sistematis dan profesional terhadap perencanaan, pelaksanaan, dan evaluasi kegiatan kampanye. Hambatan mencapai tujuan ini sebetulnya sangat sederhana yaitu adanya kecenderungan sebagian besar individu untuk mencoba memanfaatkan pendekatan hiburan atau memberikan pendekatan dengan cara mengejutkan masa untuk mengembangkan strategi-strategi kampanye maupun perencanaan dalam berkampanye.  Ini berarti semakin banyak mahasiswa dan para perancang kampanye yang belum berpengalaman memutuskan untuk memanfaatkan “hot ide”  atau berita-berita terbaru dan yang paling trendi saat itu untuk menggerakkan strategi-strategi dan pesan-pesan kampanyenya.

Banyak sekali persoalan-persoalan akan dihadapi bila kita menggunakan pendekatan diatas, sebagian besar memiliki hubungan sangat kuat kepada kemungkinan kegagalan kampanye. Sebagai langkah penyederhanaannya, kampanye-kampanye harusnya dilakukan untuk jangka lebih panjang, dengan menghabiskan dana lebih besar serta tenaga yang luar biasa besarnya maka kampanye tersebut akan memberikan efek berjangka panjang terhadap publik utama (key public) atau target-target audiens. Sayangnya kebanyakan kampanye-kampanye yang dirancang dapat menghabiskan waktu, uang dan justru memberikan dampak negatif, tidak hanya itu sasasarnnya pun tidak pernah tercapai bahkan menghambat kehidupan organisasi.

Perencanaan kampanye biasanya disertai pula dengan responsibilitas etis yang harus dilakukan baik secara langsung maupun tidak langsung.  Dari satu titik keberangkatan langsung, kampanye-kampanye seharusnya mentargetkan sasaran yang bertanggung jawab secara sosial dan menggunakan taktik-taktik yang dapat diterima secara etis. Beberapa kampanye menyertakan responsibilitas etis karena sangat besar manfaatnya dalam menyampaikan serangkaian pesan-pesan strategis atau tindakan-tindakan yang dapat berdampak pada penerima (receivers), atau bahkan disisi lain bisa juga membuat mereka menjadi resisten terhadap strategi-strategi kampanye pada masa yang akan datang (McElreath, 1996).

Di bawah ini salah satu contoh yang mendemonterasikan dilema etika pada kampanye anti merokok.

Contoh:

Para peneliti mengetahui sangat banyak tentang perilaku merokok dan sulitnya untuk menumbuhkan kesadaran pada perokok agar mereka mencoba untuk berhenti. Pertama-tama, mereka semua mengetahui perilaku merokok dapat merusak fisik karena adanya substansi atau adanya unsur nikotin yang ditemukan dalam daun tembakau. Para Peneliti juga  tahu bahwa para perokok mempunyai persepsi yang betul-betul berbeda (persepsi yang muncul dari kemampuan diri pribadi untuk berhenti merokok) yaitu tingginya hubungan terhadap intensi prilaku untuk berhenti merokok. Dilema etika para perencana kampanye terletak pada proses pengambilan keputusan yaitu ketika mereka harus menggabungkan informsi selengkap mungkin dengan pesan agar semua orang berhenti merokok. Penelitian menunjukkan bahwa dengan menggunakan beberapa alat bantu dapat menggandakan kemungkinan keberhasilan untuk mengaktualisasi agar orang berhenti melakukan kegiatan merokok, disamping itu kita juga mengetahui bahwa setiap upaya untuk mereduksi persepsi bahwa merokok memiliki sejumlah manfaat bagi perokok itu sendiri tentu saja memerlukan penanganan yang lebih serius agar pesan yang ingin disampaikan betul-betul dapat diterima. Apabila satu kampanye mendapati perokok mencoba untuk berhenti tetapi kemudian mereka gagal, akan sangat sulit bagi perancang kampanye untuk mengubah persepsi pada masa yang akan datang. Secara etis, seharusnya kita menambahkan informasi mengenai sistem yang dapat digunakan untuk memberikan bantuan kepada para perokok tersebut dalam mengurangi kebiasaan merokoknya (Nicotine gumthe patch atau inhalers) guna memaksimalkan kemungkinan keberhasilan kampanye, karena setiap kegagalan akan mereduksi kemungkinan keberhasilan pada usaha-usaha selanjutnya.

Contoh di atas salah satu bentuk yang diperlukan untuk melatarbelakangi penelitian dan perencanaan lebih lanjut. Perencana kampanye yang tidak profesional mungkin dengan tergesa-gesa memutuskan untuk komunikasi dan memberitakan mengenai bahaya merokok, dengan mengabaikan fakta-fakta bahwa merokok juga dapat memberikan manfaat terhadap beberapa fungsi fisikal karena pengaruh nikotin, upaya tersebut tentu saja akan sangat berpengaruh. Kita akan memerlukan waktu untuk melakukan penelitian guna meyakinkan para disainer kampanye untuk mencari pengganti narkotik dan obat-obat lainnya yang dapat memberikan efek fisiologis kepada individu yang memiliki pengaruh serupa seperti yang disebabkan oleh nikotin. Disamping itu manusia perlu mencari makanan (jika lapar) dan pemenuhan kebutuhan seksualnya sebagai kendali psikologis, rasa lapar maupun kebutuhan seksual adalah dua hal yang sangat sulit untuk diatasi.  Para kampanye dalam bidang ini telah menemukan salah satu cara paling berhasil guna membantu melakukan pengontrolan perilaku-perilaku  tersebut di atas adalah menggunakan kampanye-kampanye intertensi dengan memanfaatkan faktor lain yang signifikan guna membantu mendapatkan target audiens melakukan perubahan dengan bantuan yang kita berikan. Pentingnya pemahaman terhadap situasi, motivasi yang mendasari proses adalah salah satu pertimbangan etis bersifat krusial dalam konteks proses perencanaan kampanye, demonstrasi, serta bagaimana struktur sosial komunikasi berpengaruh dan sekaligus menjadi penghambat.

 

Bagaimana Anda Menyusun Ketepatan Struktur Kampanye?

 

FIGURE 21.1. BASIC CAMPAIGN PLANNING MODEL

Marston RACE model of Public Relations planning	Hendrix ROPE model of Public Relations planning
Penelitian (Research) Rencana tindakan (Action planning) Komunikasi (Communication) Evaluasi (Evaluation)	Penelitian (Research) Tujuan (Objectives) Publik (Publics) Evaluasi (Evaluation)

 

Akronim RACE dan ROPE merujuk kepada proses perencanaan kampanye hubungan publik yang didasarkan pada prinsip-prinsip manajemen berdasarkan objektif-objektif. Pendekatan dasar manajemen seperti ini digunakan secara sistematis, sekuensial, pada proses-proses berbasis tujuan. Dengan memperhatikan akronim yang digunakan para pakar atau para profesional seperti Marston RACE model (Marston, 1963,1979) dan Hendrix ROPE model (Hendrix, 2001) keduanya merupakan bentuk umum dengan langkah-langkah hampir sama dalam perencanaan kampanye misalnya ada latar belakang, dan penelitian awal, penetapan sasaran strategis utama, perencanaan dengan baik, implementasi sistematis dan evaluasi. Berdasarkan definisi bebas dalam teori di buku ini, tahapan-tahapan pada RACE dan ROPE untuk merencanakan suatu kampanye menjadi model-model dan contoh-contoh teori-teori deskriptif formal.

 

Latar belakang Penelitian sebagai Dasar Kampanye

Langkah awal dalam proses perencanaan pada model-model baik RACE maupun ROPE adalah adanya latar belakang penelitian, yang mengarah kepada suatu pemahaman yang berasal dari faktor-faktor historik faktor-faktor situasional kampanye, dan yang tidak kalah pentingnya proses motivational baik pada organisasi maupun pada stakeholders, atau audiens yang menjadi target. (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Kazoleas, 1993a, 1993b). Dengan memahami perbedaan opsi yang terdapat untuk meraih keberhasilan pemahaman ini menjadi kunci untuk mengidentifikasi kemampuan para pembuat keputusan. Contoh para mahasiswa biasanya yakin bahwa semua kampanye hubungan publik akan memerlukan kampanye dengan media yang berskala besar dengan target public opini. Namun demikian, ketepatan waktu dalam pengambilan keputusan seperti yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah kota, lembaga administrasi, atau hakim dalam suatu ruangan pengadilan dapat menciptakan precedence legal yang sangat kuat. Contoh organisasi euthanasia yang didanai dan disokong oleh Dr. Kevorkian dan seorang ahli fisika yang membantunya menemukan taktik bunuh diri sebagai upaya untuk melawan keputusan pengadilan di Amerika Serikat akhirnya menciptakan suatu presedence pro-euthanasia.  Menyadari pentingnya peran pengambil keputusan dalam struktur suatu kampanye adalah contoh difusi inovasi teori dan pembentukan teoritis peran agen perubah dalam difusi ini yaitu yang berasal dari informasi seperti telah dipelajari dalam bab 20. Untuk itu suatu kampanye mungkin memerlukan legislator khusus untuk menentukan target dalam komite-komite utama sampai kepada para sponsor untuk menciptakan, atau menyelesaikan kewajiban-kewajiban legislatif. Pengambil keputusan dalam suatu perusahaan lebih baik ditargetkan dengan suatu surat tertulis yang kemudian dikoordinasi dan bisa juga menggunakan kampanye melalui email atau dengan mengkoordinasi upaya-upaya kegiatan pada level grassroots, sebagai antisipasi terhadap kampanye dengan menggunakan iklan yaitu media dengan skala yang sangat besar. Contoh-contoh di atas menggambarkan kepada kita bagaimana perencana kampanye mungkin dapat mengawali rancangannya dengan mengeksplorasi sejarah dan mengambil basis pada persoalan-persoalan atau isu-isu penting, sebagai mekanisme potensial selama fase penelitian tentang kampanye.

Dengan menganalisa persoalan dan memisahkannya dari gejala-gejala menjadi salah satu kunci sebagai bagian dari fase penelitian dalam kampanye. Penanganan terhadap gejala diharapkan dapat membantu kita untuk dapat mencapai sasaran-sasaran jangka pendek, tetapi jika pada akar timbul masalah yang tidak teridentifikasi, maka gejala tersebut akan kembali. Salah satu contoh perlunya kehati-hatian dalam menganalisa persoalan selama phase penelitian dapat ditemukan dengan menjelaskan penomena para pengendara dalam keadaan mabuk. Perancang (Disainer) kampanye yang tidak berbasis penelitian (research) menyatakan bahwa persoalan yang muncul masih sangat mudah untuk diselesaikan. Tetapi bagi peneliti dan analist mereka akan berusaha secepat mungkin melakukan identifikasi terhadap paradok yang akan dihadapi perencana kampanye tersebut. Kampanye anti mabuk dan anti mabuk sambil mengemudi merupakan target moderat sebagai bentuk perlawanan terhadap hambatan-hambatan yang biasanya menyulitkan disebabkan sejumlah pertanyaan individual terhadap pembuatan keputusan yang masuk akal dalam suatu pernyataan yang  tidak masuk akal. Oleh karena itu pertama-tama jika seorang individu mengalami mabuk mereka akan mendapatkan kesulitan untuk menentukan atau mengingat berapa banyak mereka harus minum dan atau kondisi apa yang akan mereka hadapi semuanya tidak bisa diingatnya. Bagi perencana kampanye yang menginginkan pengurangan secara signifikan terhadap kejadian mengemudi dalam keadaan mabuk akan menjadi fokus kampanye yaitu untuk menimbulkan kesadaran kepada para pengendara diantaranya untuk memperoleh (program mengemudi yang telah didesain) atau disisi lain mencoba menemukan fokus dengan mendidik para pemabuk untuk memutuskan agar mereka tidak mengemudi ketika sedang mabuk.

 

Tindakan Perencanaan Penetapan Sasaran-sasaran Kampanye

Seperangkat pemahaman yang lengkap mengenai situasi dikembangkan, dan mekanisme pengambilan keputusan diidentifikasi secara jelas, tujuan-tujuan, sasaran-sasaran, strategi-strategi dan taktik-taktik dikembangkan. Pada tahap kedua dalam model ROPE dan RACE menandakan upaya aktual konseptualisasi dan memulai implementasi kampanye. Pada ROPE (Marsten, 1963 ; 1979) tujuan dan sasaran teridentifikasi sedangkan pada RACE (Hendrix, 2001),  menggunakan strategi-strategi khusus dan taktik-taktik yang dapat dikembangkan pengetahuan mendalam tentang kebutuhan, posisi, dan permintaan-permintaan/keinginan dari publik yang menjadi target. Kedua rencana tindakan ini mengidentifikasi publik dan audiens utama serta mengembangkan strategi-strategi penjadwalan kepada target pada publik sebagai sumber daya organisasional yang dimiliki.

Perencanaan tindakan yang teliti adalah penting karena dalam dunia nyata para disainer kampanye biasanya memiliki keterbatasan sumber daya dan dibatasi juga oleh jendela dari peluang untuk mendapatkan perhatian dari publik yang menjadi targetnya. Beberapa ahli strategi dalam kampanye memiliki gagasan tentang penjadwalan yang dilakukan secara hati-hati nampak seperti membuang waktu dan peluang, karena sebuah gagasan yang baik tetap gagasan yang baik, dan beberapa diantara mereka meyakini bahwa jika gagasan baik maka semuanya akan berjalan lancar. Ketika memilih untuk mendapatkan perhatian dalam suatu periode pemilihan atau dengan mencoba untuk membeli iklan guna menghindari isu-isu atau masalah yang akan melemahkan kampanye menggunakan jaringan tindakan seperti ini dapat menimbulkan kesulitan disamping harganyapun mahal karena ketersediaan waktu, media dan space berkurang selama periode ini dan otomatis biaya akan meningkat sangat tinggi.

 

Komunikasi kepada Publik yang menjadi target

Gambar 21.3 menujukkan pentingnya komunikasi untuk mengidentifikasi hambatan-hambatan pada audiens adalah langkah ketiga dalam model RACE dan ROPE. Calvin Klein menggeser tekanan dan gambar dari kehangatan sebuah keluarga, yang berasal dari populasi konsumennya, ini adalah suatu cara untuk mendekati apa yang menjadi keinginan setiap pribadi.

Perencana kampanye juga harus bersifat fleksibel jika kejadi atau peristiwanya berskala besar misalnya masalah yang dialami oleh seorang selebriti, natural catostrope, atau peristiwa berskala besar lainnya yang terjadi pada 11 September 2001, media dan perhatian seluruh publik akan tertuju pada masalah-masalah tersebut dan perhatian mereka tidak akan tertuju pada masalah-masalah yang tidak penting. Untuk itu kita harus segera mengambil peluang dan menjadwal ulang dan atau mendefinisikan kembali kampanye yang akan kita lakukan.

Dalam hal ini seorang ahli strategi kampanye harus berhati-hati dalam mengkomunikasikan apa yang menjadi harapannya kepada audiens yang dituju. Artinya kelengkapan penelitian sangat diperlukan untuk mengidentifikasi masalah-masalah yang signifikan pada audiens dan kemudian perencanaan dilakukan untuk mengidentifikasi objektif-objektif (sasaran dalam kampanye) dengan mengkomunikasikan pesan-pesan yang didisain secara khusus yang memerlukan pertimbangan-pertimbangan diantaranya jadwal dan waktu. Suatu organisasi tidak dapat hanya melempat pesan begitu saja kepada audiens. Kapan dan bagaimana mengkomunikasikan pesan tersebut adalah keputusan strategi yang harus dilakukan dengan hati-hati.

 

Evaluasi Kampanye

Terakhir, evaluasi juga menjadi bagian yang kritikal dan menjadi phase dalam kampanye yang sangat penting baik dalam model RACE maupun pada model ROPE. Phase ini, biasanya dilakukan untuk mengukur apakah kampanye yang dilaksanakan berhasil atau gagal secara keseluruhan. Tindakan ini merupakan mekanisme yang tidak bisa ditinggalkan untuk itu para ahli kampanye harus mendemonstrasikan nilai dan return of investment dari setiap upaya yang mereka lakukan. Return of investment adalah ketika para manajer kampanye mendemonstrasikan kepada organisasi (jika dalam komunikasi internal perusahaan ) atau kepada para klainnya (jika kampanye direncanakan oleh suatu agen) yaitu mereka yang dibayar untuk melakukan kampanye. Ukurannya adalah tercapainya tujuan yang ditetapkan dalam kampanye. Data ini dapat digunakan untuk mempromosikan usaha-usaha kampanye tambahan guna mendapatkan klain baru atau untuk mengembangkan nilai persepsi internal.

 

Teori Apa yang mendukung kampanye efektif?

Beberapa teori dan konsep-konsep teoritis dapat digunakan untuk membuat kampanye yang efektif walaupun biasanya tidak sedikit kesulitan yang harus dihadapi pada saat kita melaksanakan kampanye terutama beberapa persoalan, isu, atau situasi yang bekembang sebelumnya adalah  persoalan-persoalan yang tidak bisa diabaikan. Oleh karena itu ada satu kerangka kerja teoritis yang dikemukakan oleh McGuire Matrix (1985-1989) yaitu dengan mengintegrasikan sejumlah besar penelitian tentang pengaruh sosial, persuasi, dan sikap yang mengubah penelitian ke dalam suatu model yang dapat digunakan untuk mengembangkan kampanye yang efektif dalam berbagai konteks yang luas.  Penyederhanaan variasi matrix telah dikembangkan oleh William McGuire (1989) matrix adalah salah satu alat yang efektif dalam penembangan kampanye karena alat ini mudah untuk mengingat dan mentargetkan sejumlah variabel-variabel penting seperti telah ditunjukkan untuk memprediksi keberhasilan atau kegagalan setiap kampanye.

 

·         McGuire’s Matrix

Model ini dengan jelas mengidentifikasi sejumlah proses yang harus terjadi pada beberapa kampanye untuk mendapatkan dampaknya. Pada umumnya, model ini meneliti sejumlah faktor-faktor kognitif misalnya perhatian terhadp pesan, pemahaman, retensi setidaknya pada sebagian kecil pesan dan beberapa tingkatan hasil atau harapan yang mendasari proses mempengaruhi kampanye. Proses seperti ini kita kenal dengan proses-proses mental yang harus terjadi pada beberapa kampanye agar mendapatkan efek. Jika kampanye tidak mendapatkan perhatian target (karena beberapa alas an), jika pesan-pesan tersebut tidak dimengerti, atau jika pesan-pesan tersebut tidak terdengar atau tidak dapat diingat, maka dapat dipastikan sangat kecil sekali kemungkinan kampanye tersebut akan berhasil.

                  Dengan menggunakan matrik atau model keefektifan dalam perencanaan kampanye oleh perencana kampanye dapat memanipulasi berbagai aspek mulai dari sumber, saluran dan pesan-pesan yang disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan, keinginan, keyakinan dan kebiasaaan media para penerima. Strategi dan taktik kampanye yang dipilih harus mampu memaksimalkan kemungkinan-kemungkinan yang akan menarik perhatian dan simpati penerima terhadap pesan-pesan yang disampaikan, pesan tersebut harus dipahami dan/atau dimengerti, sehingga akan menghasilkan atau paling tidak pesan tersebut menjadi bahan pertimbangan, dan mempertahankan sebagian pesan tersebut. Seluruh komponen ini penting untuk meningkatkan kesadaran, pengetahuan, perubahan sikap, perubahan kepercayaan, dan perubahan perilaku untuk terjadi.

Gambar 21.4 McGuire Matrix

Faktor-faktor bebas	Proses-proses mediasi	Outcome atau konsekuensi-konsekuensi
Sumber Pesan Saluran Penerima	Perhatian Pemahaman Hasil atau Penerimaan Retensi	Kesadaran Perubahan Sikap Pergeseran Kepercayaan Perubahan Perilaku

 

Model McGuire (McGuire Model) menggerakkan langkah-langkah untuk perencanaan, implementasi maupun evaluasi suat kampanye seperti telah diuraikan pada bagian awal bab ini. Penggunaan model ini menegaskan pentingnya suatu bentuk pendekatan sistemik untuk merencanakan dan menentukan strategi-strategi dan taktik-taktik berkampanye. Dalam model ini, penelitian menjadi kunci untuk menentukan apa tipe sumber, pesan, dan saluran yang paling disukai untuk meraih, dapat diterima dan mempengaruhi penerima. Dengan memberikan beragam variasi secara demografis, psikogeografi, dan posisi-posisi perceptual, memperluas informasi organisasi yang berbeda agar dapat digunakan untuk memperoleh perhatian dan kesadaran stakeholder target. Keberagaman variasi dalam langkah model McGuire mendemonstrasikan pentingnya sumber, atau organisasional, persentase atau sponsorship yang mengajak audiens untuk mendapatkan perhatiannya. Sebagianbesar dari pilihan-pilihan yang rumit untuk dijadikan pengakuan penting yang perlukan untuk melakukan penelitian awal tentang keorganisasian serta audiensi.

      Keperduluan dan pengertian dari perspektif penerima (receivers) harus dimanfaatkan untuk memilih isi-isi pesan yang dianggap kredibel, menarik atau mudah dipahami, yang berkoresponden kepada langkah kedua dalam  McGuire’s Matrix. Contoh, jika pesan menggunakan fear-based atau threat-based appeal, para penerima harus melihat threat tersebut adalah sesuatu yang serius atau pasti. Pada kasus dengan audiens-nya adalah orang-orang dewasa, target-target remaja cenderung untuk memberikan argumentasi balasan menentang pesan-pesan health based threat dan fear-based meskipun mereka merespon baik terhadap ancaman-ancaman dengan menghormati penolakkan social. Selain itu, penghargaan maupun konsekuensi-konsekuensi negative harus mampu memberikan motivasi kepada kelompok usia ini. Misalnya, tabungan sebesar $10 tidak mungkin memotivasi remaja-remaja yang memiliki income besar, dan “pada dasarnya” tidak boleh terlihat seperti konsekuensi negative bagi orangtua-orangtua yang mempunyai televise, stereo,video game system, dan computer dikamar masing-masing. Contoh-contoh ini mengidentikasi apa saja jenis pesan yang bias efektif kepada para remaja menunjukkan pentingnya perhatian dan kehati-hatian ketika kita memilih komponen-komponen yang akan mempengaruhi target, seperti yang dimaksud dalam faktor pesan (message factor) pada McGuire’s Matrix. Dengan demuikian, pembuat rencana (planner) harus memilih komponen-komponen pesann yang akan memaksimalkan efek dari setiap proses mediasi, seperti hasil atau penerimaan (receptivity), yang paa gilirannya akan memaksimalkan kemungkinan terjadinya perubahan sikap/prilaku.

                  Selanjutnya, menurut model ini langkah ketiga adalah saluran (channel), kita bias mencatat bahwa beberapa saluran komunikasi menawarkan pencapaian, frekuensi dan dampak luar biasa terhadap penerima (receiver). Missal, sejumlah market jaringan televise (television network markets), berita malam mempeoleh rating tinggi, tetapi para remaja tidak pernah menontonnya. Pada waktu bersamaan, iklan radio dan/atau cakupan berita-berita radio tidak menawarkan kemewahan dan dampak emosional berita-berita televise cukup mengena kepada kalangan dewasa. Disisi lain, dikota-kota besar di Amerika sebagian besar populasi pemuda menghabiskan banyak waktu mereka untuk mendengarkan musik-musik favoritnya dimobil-mobilnya. Pemanfaatan radio untuk menjangkau kelompok remaja ini, dalam kasus ini, harus benar-benar efektif. Sama halnya, banyak sekali waktu yang dihabiskan dikendaraan oleh para “commuters”, dan radio adalah sahabat mereka ketika sedang mengemudi, untuk itu perlu pengelolaan yang efektif agar mampu menjangkau pengemudi tersebut untuk dan/atau dari pekerjaan daripada iklan televise pada waktu bersamaan.

Dan faktor terakhir atau faktor keempat dalam McGuire Model, menguji receiver terhadap retensi dan kemungkinan perubahan prilaku, hal ini juga cukup krusial dalam perancanaan kampanye. Ujian tertutup terhadap receiver juga berguna untuk pengujian terakhir terhadap kontrol kualitas sebelum merencanakan kampanye terakhir. Hal ini sangat penting untuk  meneliti strategi-strategi, rencana-rencana dan taktik-taktik yang harus dipersiapkan dan kemudian dijalankan melalui proses-proses mediasi  dari perspektif receiver. Apakah kampanye menyerupai uapaya untuk mendapatkan perhatian dari target, meskipun berhadapan dengan media-media dan pesan-pesan tandingan dai yang lain? Apakah audiens yang ditargetkan mengerti dan memahami pesan dalam bentuk yang disajikan? Penelitian mengindikasikan bahwa persoalan-peroslan yang rumit sangat tidak tepat disajikan melalui media masa karena penayangannya dibatasi oleh waktu dan receiver tidak berkemampuan untuk mengontrol proses penyampaian pesan. Lagi pula, pusat-pusat urban di Amerika sebagian besar jumlah individunya masih sangat terbatas kemampuan untuk berbicara dan mengerti bahasa Inggris. Apakah populasi yang ditargetkan akan menangkap pesan atau menerima rekomendasi-rekomendasi dalam pesan tersebut? Counterargument dan opposing campigns harus turut menjadi bahan pertimbangan. Terkahir, apakah strategi-strategi dan taktik-taktik memiliki efek terakhir, baik dengan retensi promosi maupun dengan memodifikasi struktur-struktur kognitif seperti sikap dan kepercayaan? Jika jawabannya adalah tidak untuk pertanyaan-pertanyaan di atas, jawaban tersebut adalah tidak boleh tidak (imperative) bagi para perencana (planner) kampanye untuk melakukan modifikasi kampanye atau kalau tidak berarti resiko membuang waktu, uang dan tenaga.

 

·         Analisis Situasional dan Publik Target (Situational Analysis and Target Publics)

McGuire Model dan semua model-model hubungan publik lainnya memerlukan suatu pengertian yang akurat terhadap seluruh faktor situasional maupun faktor kontekstual sama seperti  seperangkat pemikiran, kemampuan-kemampuan dan keterbatasan-keterbatasan yang eksis diantara pada stakeholder. Dengan kata lain, pembuat rencana (planner) harus mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mendasari suatu keyakinan, pemain-pemain yang berkontribusi kepada situasi secara langsung, dan faktor-faktor yang dapat mendorong atau merintangi publik target untuk melakukan suatu tindakkan (Hovlan et al, 1953; Kazoleas, 1993a, 1993b).

      Psikologi sosial, hubungan publik, periklanan dan peneliti-peneliti pemasaran telah mengembangkan  teori-teori dan model-model yang luar biasa akurat dan dapat mempengaruhi prilaku individual, atau dari pespektif audiens akan mendekat kepada isu. Misalnya, seperti telah anda pelajari dalam bagian-bagian sebelumnya dalam buku ini terutama hirarki kebutuhan Marlow (Maslow’s hierarchy of need) (1954), yang menyatakan bahwa kebutuhan-kebutuhan psikologikal dan kebutuhan-kebutuhan keamanan dapat dimanfaatkan untuk mendorongterjadinya perubahan prilaku. Sebagai bagian dari pembahasan model ini juga mempelajari bahwa manusia mempunyai kebutuhan kekuatan untuk penerimaan sosial dan penghargaan kepada orang lain – semakin kuat penerimaan dan penghargaan itu maka mereka akan menghabiskan miliyaran per tahun demi kecantikkan/kemunculan produk-produk tersebut serta merencanakan untuk diet.

Selama ini, sejumlah model tentang model-model prilku konsumen telah dikembangkan dari penelitian tentang periklanan, seperti VALS (Value and Lifestyle Behaviors) dan VAL2 (Moffit, 1999; Pfau & Parrot, 1993), yaitu berfokus pada faktor-faktor prediktif paling penting. Model-model ini berfokus baik kepada psikologikal konsumen maupun kepada kemampuan-kemampuan kognitif sama baiknya, begitu juga sumber-sumber material dan prioritas-prioritas. Kerangka kerja seperti ini meneliti tentang target-target audiens dengan meneliti dimana mereka berada dalam siklus hidup, misalnya, diawali dari kehidupan membujang, berkeluarga tanpa kehadiran anak, menikah dengan seorang janda atau duda: atau ‘empty nester’ yang sudah tua dan mempunyai anak-anak dan mereka tidak akan pulang kerumahnya. VALs dapat memprediksi  dan menempatkan prioritas-prioritas, bagaimana mereka menggunakan uangnya, dan bagaimana mereka mengatur income yang dimilikinya. Model-model VALs disini termasuk faktor-faktor dari faktor psikologikal seperti nilai, karena sejumlah individu terdorong oleh nilsi-nilsi penting yang telah ditetapkan (contoh, nilai-nilai keagamaan). Selain itu, orang yang lebih berpendidikan biasanya mempunyai kebutuhan lebih tinggi kepada prestasi dan penghargaan.

Semuanya adalah faktor-faktor yang dapat digunakan untuk memilih strategi-strategi dan taktik-taktik dalam perencanaan suatu kampanye dan dengan harapan penuh, mempengaruhi perubahan-perubahan para prilaku dan sikap atau bahkan kepercayaan. Pada bab selanjutnya tentang rencangan pesan kampanye akan dijelaskan lebih lengkap menggunakan VALs relative untuk mendesain pesan, tetapi pertimbangan-pertimbangan ini juga tidak kalah pentingnya terhadap sturktur umum kampanye.

·         Teori Situasional Grunig (Grunig’s Situational theory)

Grunig’s (Grunig & Hunt, 1984) situational theory berfokus kepada seperangkat faktor-faktor yang dapat digunakan untuk menetapkan perluasan kepada publik agar menjadi lebih peduli kepada maslah-masalah dan/atau bertindak dalam hubungan kepada masalah-masalah utama dalam pembangunan atau pesan-pesan kampanye. Bentuk semula teori ini menyatakan bahwa target tindakan publik pada suatu persoalan dilandasi oleh tiga faktor penting. Pertama, pengetahuan dan keperdulian terhadap masalah, kedua adalah tingkat keterlibatan dan faktor ketiga adalah persepsi-persepsi konstrain /prilaku konstrain. Variabel-variabel tersebut serta kombinasi-kombinasi kemungkinan memprediksikan pengolahan informasi dan tingkat aktifitas mencari informasi publik. Versi awal teori Grunig ini menyebutkan ada empat kelompok publik utama: nonpublics, yang tidak dipengaruhi dan tidak peduli terhadap masalah; latent publics, yaitu kelompok individual yang akan dipengaruhi meskipun mereka tidak perduli kepada masalah-masalah kampanye; aware publics, yaitu kelompok yang mempunyai tingkat keperdulian tinggi dan sikap-sikap baik, meskipun belum aktif seperti yang diharapkan; dan active publics, mereka yang sadar, membutuhkan, aktif dan mempunyai sikap terhadap situasi-situasi kampanye baik pada saat mereka mendapat tantangan maupun ketika tidak menghadapi tantangan sama sekali. Perhatikan bagaimana perencana kampanye mengidentifikasi faktor-faktor tadi dan menggunakan informasi-informasi itu untuk memotivasi dan mengaktifkan sejumlah audiens.

Kunci bagi perencana strategi kampanye  adalah memperkirakan bahwa publik nonpublics yang tidak menyadari dengan satu persoalan tidak akan mencari informasi tentang masalah tersebut dan tidak akan seperti yang ingin dicapai melalui pesan-pesan kampanye; demikian pula; aware publics yang tidak bertindak dan tidak mencari informasi dengan proaktif. Ini berarti bahwa perencana kampanye harus dengan teliti mentargetkan mereka dengan memiliki pengertian penting pola-pola pemanfaatan media masa dan menggunakan informasi tersebut untuk menempatkan pesan-pesan kampanye sesuai dengan pola-pola tersebut. Active publics mencari informasi dan mereka akan dengan suka cita bertindak. Ini berarti bahwa perencana harus melakukan semua yang mungkin untuk memberikan informasi mendalam guna memobilisasi publik tersebut dan menyediakan informasi, dengan sangat berharap, mereka mereka dapat memanfaatkan dan menjadi aktif.

Internet adalah contoh lain yang lebih besar merupakan alat yang dapat digunakan untuk penyediakan sumber-sumber informasi sebagai bahan pertimbangan bagi publik untuk mewujudkan keperdulian dan menjadi aktif. Internet memungkinan kita untuk menyimpan informasi dalam jumlah besar, informasi itu dapat dicari dan dapat dibuka berulang-ulang, informasi yang tersedia “24/7” (selama duapuluh empat jam dalam seminggu), dan informasi ini relatif murah penggunaannya, muah diperbaharui dan gampang mengelolanya. Pemanfaatan internet sebagai salah satu saluran untuk pengayaan dan pemahaman isi pesan dapat memenuhi kunci keberhasilan penelitian bagi perencana kampanye, yaitu, untuk menyajikan informasi yang akan mendorong kesadaran publi untuk mengaktifkan dan menangani satu posisi active public pada tingkat itu.

Selain itu, Grunig’s (1989, 2001) melalui penelitian terbarunya telah menganalisa publik target dibenturkan kepada berbagai persoalan dan dia menyatakan bahwa  publik tertentu selalu eksis diantara situasi-situasi yangtelah kita bahas di atas. Contoh, murid-murid sekolah dapat dianggap sebagai apathetic public disini, mereka biasanya tidak begitu memperhatikan persoalan-persoalan politik yang sedang berlangsung disekeliling mereka. Single-issue publics  adalah mereka yang akan aktif dan bertindak atas suatu persoalan penting. Isu aborsi menjadi salah satu contoh untuk publik jenis ini.

Hot-issue publics adalah mereka yang cenderung mengeluarkan isu-isu yang menjadi “hangat” alam masyarakatnya and dibicarakan oleh media, ditempat kerja bahkan sampai dirumah tangga. Contoh, 9-11 mendukung semangat patriotisme dan menjadi aktifis diantara individu-individu maupun kelompok-kelompok yang menginginkan Amerika Serikat lebih aman, beberapa individu adalah mereka-mereka yang selalu aktif menyuarakan isu tersebut, sedangkan lainnya mereka adalah orang-orang yang termotivasi oleh semua oleh adanya tindakan-tindkan perusakan serta perhatian yang diberikan media.

Akhirnya tapi bukan yang terakhir adalah all-issue publics. Ini adalah individu-individu atau kelompok-kelompok individu yang akan memberikan dan dengan aktif memberantas semua perbedaan kecuali persoalan-persoalan terkait. Kelompok ini tidak mendapat memperhatikan dari perencana kampanye karena mereka membuat strategi luar biasa  berdasarkan upaya-upaya koordinatif mulai dari tingkat lokal, negara bagian dan bahkan sampai pada tingkat nasional. Secara psikologis, mereka adalah individu-individu yang biasanya menginginkan untuk melakukan perubahan dan sangat berkeinginan untuk memperpanjang waktu dan sumber-sumber untuk mencoba melakukan sesuatu yang berbeda. Mereka juga dikenal karena mereka sering berperan sebagai pondasi untuk berkampanye pada tingkat akar rumput (grassroots campaign).

·         Agenda-setting and issue: Life-Cycle theories

Target PR kampanye biasanya menggunakan media massa, dengan perhatianutama tertuju pada berita-berita dan publisitas sebagai taktik. Perencana kampanye yang cerdas harus melakukan pendekatan kepada media yang pada dasarnya merupakan target penting untuk melakukan persuasi. Dalam hal ini berarti bahwa perencana kampanye harus mengerti apa yang masyarakat media inginkan, butuhkan dan harapkan, dan bagaimana mereka menyelesaikan pekerjaannya. Siap pemilik media? Mereka adalah orang-orang biasa, dengan tujuan-tujuan, sikap-sikap, kepercayaan, agenda-agenda dan prasangka-prasangka yang bekerja untuk organisasi, yang pada umumnya mempunyai satu tujuan umum. Tujuannya adalah menghasilkan sejumlah uang. Rating, sirkulasi, readership dan independent web ‘hit’ berarti kemampuan untuk menjual iklan. Pekerjaan seorang jurnalis harus mengungkapkan cerita-cerita yang akan memperluas ketertarikan dan perhatian.

Pertanyaannya adalah, apakah media mengungkapkan isu-isu dan membahasnya dalam masyarakat, atau apakah persoalan-persoalan tersebut sungguh-sungguh merefleksikan pembahasan dan berfokus kepada masalah-masalah utama yang berhubungan langsung dengan masyarakat? Ada dua cara berbeda dalam memandang perseoalan seperti dikemukakan di atas. Pertama, kita harus memahami persoalan dari agenda yang telah ditetapkan dan menanyakan apa pengaruh media bagi setiap individu. Anda harus mempelajari bab-bab mengenai komunikasi massa dengan agenda-setting theory(Devine & Hirt, 1989; McCombs, 1977) yang menceritakan kepada kita bahwa media tidak mengungkapkan apa yang harus kita pikirkan tetapi media mengungkapkan tentang apa yang kita pikirkan. Dengan kata lain bahwa media menetapkan agenda untuk pembahasan harian level individual maupun pada level masyarakat. Seorang perencana kampanye yang handal memahami proses ini sangat baik dan dengan demikian dia akan berusaha untuk mendapatkan media yang memiliki perhatian utama pada persoalan-persoalan keorganisasian dengan pesan-pesan khususnya (Ewing, 1997; Lippmann, 1927; VanLeuven & Slater, 1991). Meskipun penjelasan ini masih belum bisa menjawab pertanyaan apakah dengan mengungkapkan sejumlah masalah kita akan mendapatkan perhatian baik dari media sendiri maupun dari masyarakat.

Perangkat kedua dari teori-teori yang ada berkisar tentang  masalah dan kebijakan siklus hidup (issue and policy life cycles), kadang-kadang merujuk juga kepada masalah siklus perhatian (issue-attention cycles) (McCombs, Shaw & Grey, 1976; Dearing & Rogers, 1996). Teori tersebut menyatakan bahwa latent issues selalu eksis di dalam masyarakat, dan seringkali menjadi triger peristiwa-peristiwa penting, misalnya kejadian-kejadian bersifat alamiah, tindakan kekerasan dan aksi-aksi, perundangan yang kontroversial atau peristiwa-peristiwa lain dengan skala lebih besar, mengemukakan persoalan-persoalan tersebut untuk mendapatkan perhatian. Salah satu bentuk perhatian tersebut, kita awali dengan mendiskusikannya, mengembangkan posisi-posisi dan solusi-solusi terkait, mendiskusikan penyelesaiannya, dan selanjutnya melakukan tindakan atas persoalan tersebut. Untuk itu, beberapa isu lain pun akan ikut terangkat dan turut mendapatkan perhatian, kemudian persoalan utama akan kembali kepada pernyataan latent itu sendiri, sampai pemicu kejadian lainnya muncul.

Salah satu contoh isu dimaksud yaitu persoalan pengendalian persenjataan. Isu ini telah lama menghilang sejak akhir tahun 1970-an, sampai John Hinckley berusaha untuk membunuh Presiden Ronald Reagen tahun 1981. Tindakan Hinckley ini memicu pemerintah Amerika Serikat untuk membuka kembali pembicaraan mengenai pengendalian persenjataan sehingga banyak sekali terjadi perdebatan, diskusi dan pada akhirnya menjadi tindakan nyata dalam bentuk perundang-undangan baru tentang pengendalian persenjataan (contoh., the Brady Bill). Isu ini kemudian menghilang lagi sampai dilakukan pembaharuan ketika beberapa pelajar menggunakan senjata untuk membunuh pelajar-pelajar lain di Columbine High School di Colorado dan di salah satu sekolah di Paducah, Kentucky. Kejadian-kejadian pemicu mendorong isu-isu latent kembali mencuat kepermukaan dan berkembang dalam masyarakat selanjutnya media mendiskusikan masalah ini sehingga menghasilkan banyak sekali perubahan-perubahan dalam bidang hukum dan kebijakan. Sama halnya, eksekusi terhadap Timothy McVeigh dalamkasus pengeboman Oklahoma City melibatkan media dengan memberitakan kepada sejumlah kelompok baik yang menentang maupun yang memberikan dukungan penggunaan hukuman mati, dan peristiwa-peristiwa teror dari 9-11 telah menjadi langkah awal bagi beberapa kelompok yang telah mencurahkan sebagian besar perhatiannya untuk membuat warga Amerika menyadari bahaya sebagai akibat longgarnya kebijakan keimigrasian dan lintas batas.

Seperti dicatat para ahli tentang public opini, Hadley Cantrill (1972) dan Walter Lippmann (1927) mereka membahas fenomena ini dalam laws of public opini, dengan mencatat bahwa kejadian-kejadian yang signifikan (nyata) dapat memunculkan perbincangan dan diskusi, menciptakan opini-opini atau segera bertukar menjadi public opini. Seorang perencana kampanye yang cerdas mengamati setiap event tersebut untuk menjadi penyebab dan masalah, dan apabila persoalan tersebut terkait, bergerak cepat manjadi perhatian utama dan sekaligus menjadi peluang. Berita-berita media, begitu pula produser-produser acara-acara talk show, akan mencari isi acaranya dengan informasi dan opini-opini mengenai isu tersebut. Ini merupakan pekerjaan seorang perencana kampanye, dia harus bisa bergerak cepat dan membantu membarikan bantuan dengan suplai informasi, opini-opini maupun perwakilan-perwakilan yang akan diwawancarai, direkam atau siapa saja yang akan berpartisipasi dalam acara talk show.

Terkahir, ada sedikit waktu ketika perencana kampanye akan menciptakan suatu event dengan menggunakan protes, tindakan publisitas, arsip pengadilan (court filing), atau mengeluarkan temuan-temuan hasil penelitian yang kredibel atu bisa juga mengeluarkan hasil jejak pendapat publik bersifat objektif yang disponsori suatu organisasi untuk memperoleh perhatian media dan mendorong terjadinya perdebatan. Singkatnya, perencana kampanye pada semua waktu harus memaksimalkan penggunaan media, mendapatkan tanggapan dengan mensuplai mereka informasi-informasi yang dibutuhkan untuk mengisi setiap inchi kolom, waktu tayang, maupun halaman-halaman web. (Web site: How to Health and Safety Campaigns Exemplify Campaign Communication?)

RINGKASAN

 

Bab ini difokuskan pada pengembangan dan implementasi dasar komunikasi kampanye secara teoritis. Seperti telah ditunjukkan pada isi dalam bab ini, kampanye merupakan upaya-upaya sistematis dan strategis dengan target yang telah teridentifiksai jelas berdasarkan tujuan-tujuan dan sasaran yang spesifik. Selanjutnya, pendekatan hubungan publik biasanya menjadi kunci penting suatu hubungan (termasuk aliansi) dan dapat memanfaatkan berbagai strategi baik langsung maupuntak langsung serta taktik untuk meraih  tujuan kampanye yang diinginkan. Fokus hubungan kemasyarakatan (public relation) juga cenderung memanfaatkan kedua strategi pesan terkontrol misalnya iklan dan strategi pesan yang tidak terkontrol seperti pemanfaatan news releases, media advocacy, dan atau publisitas berbasis taktis. Pendekatan ini memberikan keuntungan dalam wilayah fleksibilitas, pembiayaan, pencapaian, dan keefektifan kampanye.

Bab ini juga secara tegas menyarankan pemanfaatan teori dan pendekatan-pendekatan berbasis penelitian untuk mendesain dan mengimplementasi kampanye-kampanye. Penggunaan pengujian dan mekanisme-mekanisme penyuaraan secara teoritis tidak akan menjadi jaminan keberhasilan, tetapi hanya memaksimalkan kemungkinan keberhasilan dan meminimalkan kemungkinan kegagalan. Model-model ini telah mendemonstrasikan bahwa kampanye harus disajikan dengan jelas, dapat diaplikasikan, konsekuensi-konsekuensi yang memberikan motivasi, strategi-strategi untuk menghadapi perbedaan pendapat tentang suatu kepastian dan kemanjuran, serta menetapkan rekomendasi yang dapat digunakan untuk menghindari konsekuensi-konsekuensi negatifnya.

Para mahasiswa dan sarjana yang mempelajari kampanye dalam ruang kelas sering menemukan kesulitan untuk mendapatkan pemahaman menyeluruh tentang kesulitan dan kompleksitas yang terdapat dalam perencanaan dan melaksanakan kampanye baik kampanye berskala kecil-, sedang, maupun besar. Manusia secara alamiah akan menciptakan kebiasaan, mengembangan pola-pola prilaku, memanfaatkan media, dan menyaring pesan. Membuat individu-individu atau kelompok-kelompok menjadi individu yang sadar, terbuka, dan pada akhirnya aktif terhadap suatu masalah (issue) yaitu suatu proses yang sulit termasuk jika tidak terjadi persaingan dalam kampanye. Bab ini juga telah menyajikan teori-teori dasar dan model-model berdasarkan penelitian seperti telah ditunjukkan untuk menciptakan keefektifan dalam perencanaan, maupun pembangunan, dan implementasi kampanye. Apakah dengan penggunaan model-model tersebut menjadi jaminan atas keberhasilan? Bukan, apa yang mereka lakukan hanya memaksimalkan kemungkinan untuk mencapai keberhasilan, dan mengurangi sebesar-besarnya kemungkinan atau peluang kegagalan. Akhirnya, pada saat masalah ini menjadi persoalan penting dan keberhasilan diperhitungkan, apapun yang mampu menggeser rintangan dalam mencapai keberhasilan tidak bisa kita abaikan.

 

“Mil Pengharapan”

Kelahiranku tak normal. Aku seorang anak laki-laki, aku seorang anak kelahiran prematur maksudnya kelahiranku lebih awal dari jadwal kelahiran sebenarnya. Aku lahir dengan ukuran tubuh hanya sebesar botol sirup. Tidak tahu apakah aku akan menjadi orang yang paling besar didalam keluargaku, karena menurut orang dan beberapa hasil penelitian menyatakan bahwa setiap bayi kelahiran prematur, memang akan terlihat bentuk fisik pertama lahir mempunyai ukuran, berat badan jauh lebih kecil bila dibandingkan dengan bayi kelahiran normal. Kengerian sang ibu dan bapak melihat bayinya yang begitu kecil membuatnya harus selalu siaga dalam menjaganya, sampai menunjukkan kondisi badan yang stabil. On line adalah kata yang paling tepat dan sering dikatakan oleh kedua orang tua ketika baru pertama mendapatkan bayinya. Merah, rasanya sulit dibayangkan dengan lendir dan lapisan tipis yang masih menyelimuti setiap lekukan tubuhku. Dengan selimut itulah disaat aku masih dalam rahim menjadi pelindung dan pembantu aktivitasku. Aku sadar memang berat menjadi seorang bayi. Kenapa tidak. Karena seorang bayi sebelum dia menginjak dewasa dan menjadi manusia sempurna yang normal keterikatan pada orang-orang yang jauh lebih besar dari dirinya memang bukanlah menjadi ungkapan semata yang sering kali kita dengar. Tapi memang itu adanya, realita yang ada. Kadang kita mendengar cerita orang enak sekali kalau masih bayi. Tapi buatku adalah memang itulah masa yang paling indah dan paling mengesankan sepanjang kita hidup. Ketergantungan demi ketergantungan bukanlah menjadi sebuah pengikat resmi, tapi kita tanpa ketergantungan pada kedua orang tua kita, dapat dipastikan akan terjadi sesuatu yang sangat besar. yang besar aku dilahirkan dari kalangan orang yang kurang mampu. Aku tidak tahu kelanjutan dan arah kemana aku harus melangkah. Pengalaman hidupku memberikan gambaran yang berbeda dengan orang lain. Kejadian demi kejadian pernah aku alami. Merenung memang sudah menjadi bagian dalam hidupku. Kesepian bukanlah menjadi masalah bagiku. Tapi keceriaan yang aku inginkan kapan akan aku dapatkan. Walau bayang-bayang senja perlahan mulai terhapus dan malam mulai beranjak dari persembunyiannya. Tertawa dan riuh membuat keramaian ditengah malam. Mengalir tanpa henti. Bermain sepanjang malam. Hendaknya aku seperti itu…Kapan akan aku alami. Lampu besar menerangi seluruh negeri tapi apakah aku termasuk didalamnya. Disuatu senja saat matahari diupuk timur. Posisi setengah bundar yang terpotong tepat dibagian tengah. Upuk timur yang berawan seolah menunjukkan jarak yang sangat dekat denganku. Awan bergaris mendekat, membuat batasan yang tidak nyata. Kelam membahana tak berbayang. Awan kelabu bergurai menjari membentuk untaian tak merata. Jari-jari menjuntai memberikan bentuk dan rupa. Lekukan yang tajam bagai karya seni. Duduk termangu menatap bayang matahari yang berjalan perlahan.

Puluhan mil pengharapan yang aku impikan. Tidak pernah menyentuh

Aku seorang tenaga pengetik setiap hari mendambakan sebuah impian besar menjadi kenyataan dihadapanku. Aku seorang pengkhayal, jelas terlihat dari angan-anganku. Semua itu aku gambarkan begitu banyaknya keinginan yang ada dalam alam pikirku, tidak semua orang mempunyainya! “Hanya anggapanku saja“. Tetapi sampai kapan aku akan berhenti mengkhayalkan keinginan yang tak berujung ini. Apakah karena tak berujung itu renunganku tentang nasib yang sedang aku alami sampai saat ini masih bersembunyi dalam benakku.

 

Kegilaan-kegilaan selalu menemaniku. Kegilaan sulit tergambarkan secara nyata selama perjalanan hidupku, hanya teori yang menjadi bayangan buram semu menggelayuti pilar yang rapuh ini. Berkabut bukanlah satu misteri yang ada dibaliknya. Inilah penggambaran halangan yang sulit terabaikan.

Kekecewaan akan selalu aku hadapi. Hambatan besar sekalipun akan aku hadapi. Renungkan semua itu. Keringanan berharap membawa sebuah kemudahan menjadi keinginan besar keduaku.

Tekanan bukanlah hal baik bagiku. Tekanan yang menyertai dan mendampingi ku selalu saja ikut serta kemana aku pergi. Dimana aku berada aku selalu merasakannya. Aku pikir bukan hanyalah tekanan ringan, sedang, besar sekalipun akan tetap aku sadari dengan sebuah kata sabar dan ikhlas. 

Pembekuan perasaan menjadi hantu bagi setiap karir dan kreativitasku. Seolah hantu bergentayangan yang selalu mengekang setiap aku ingin berlari. Berlari-berlari dan terus berlari entah tidak tahu kemana aku harus mengarahkan kakiku. Pembekuan perasaan membuat kekang yang sulit lepas dari pernafasanku menyentak seluruh detak jantungku.

Kesengsaraan membuatku menjadi berbalik menjadi hantu yang selalu bergentayangan. Hantu-hantu hitam pekat memberikan kesuraman. Semangat penghancur perasaan menjadi nafas penutup setiap saluran pernafasan. Sistem dan sistem yang ada pada diriku tidak dapat membantu. Ketenangan akan memberikan sebuah kenyataan keberhasilan ku dalam memberikan penerangan terhadap kerlap dan dangkalnya gumpalan yang membatu dalam perasaanku.

Sistem terbentuk hanya karena sesuatu. Sesuatu bangkit menjadi penghancur memberikan kemenangan. Kata kunci menjadi pegangan setiap gelora nafas yang masih ada. Kerlip mata sesayup angin malam menjambak rambut kemudian membelainya dengan tangan hampa. Kadang tertutup kadang terbuka. Melayang harapan terbesar dan keinginan yang nyata.

Terlepas dari genggaman terbuka mata. Tertutup kala tidur lelap. Hati berkata, bersorak entah kebenaran atau kebersalahan yang ada dalam selubung pembuat lingkaran oval. Oval menggambarkan keadaan kita.  Kalau garis menyatu berbentuk oval, itulah siklus apapun yang kita punya. Tinggi rendahnya letak sebuah lingkaran memberikan gambaran yang mempunyai arti sendiri-sendiri. Bagian titik bawah menggambarkan keberadaan kita saat ini dan saat nanti atau dengan kata lain buruknya keegoisan yang dimiliki, titik atas menggambarkan keberadaan kita terutama sekali keegoisan kita yang selalu memuncak, memberikan gambaran paling jelek sepanjang karir. Penghapusan garis-garis lingkaran lonjong bukanlah hal mudah yang dapat kita lakukan tapi akan dapat hilang seandainya kita memejamkan mata kita dan menarik nafas kita kembali dari gumpalan yang tergenggam dalam hati, membangunkannya kembali dari tidur panjang, cobalah kita membayangkan kesemuan yang dimiliki garis lingkaran tersebut. Kepastian akan datang bersamaan dengan angan-angan kita itu. Bukanlah menjadi bayangan-bayangan nyata tapi seandainya. Perlu kita garis bawahi seandainya. 

Kemajuan Genetik Sapi Perah

Oleh: Yudi, S.Pt.

 

Kemajuan genetik sebagai suatu rangkaian keberhasilan program pemuliaan sapi perah diharapkan dapat menghasilkan bibit unggul dengan jalan melakukan seleksi dan sistem perkawinan. Perbaikan mutu genetik melalui grading up dari sapi betina dan pejantan/semen persilangan.

Adanya kepedulian secara terus-menerus dari peternak sapi perah terhadap kemajuan genetik sapi perah, baik betina dara, betina dewasa, maupun pejantan dapat menjadi salah satu faktor penentu terhadap keberhasilan dalam perkembangbiakan ternak (produksi ternak) yang dipeliharanya. Kemajuan peternakan sapi perah juga erat kaitannya dengan terjadinya peningkatan dan penurunan produksi susu, hal ini tidak ditandai oleh adanya perubahan-perubahan nyata dari konformasi tubuh (body conformation) ternak setelah melahirkan sampai melahirkan kembali, melainkan kejadian ini hanya menggambarkan sebuah siklus yang terjadi secara terus menerus, sehingga tidak mungkin untuk memutusnya dari setiap periode, terutama sekali setiap periode setelah melahirkan. Perubahan-perubahan konformasi tubuh ini terjadi karena proses kebuntingan. Perubahan konformasi tubuh karena kebuntingan pastinya akan memberikan gambaran bentuk tubuh yang sangat berbeda bila dibandingkan dengan tubuh ternak yang ideal (tidak bunting).

Tidak terlepas dari itu semua bahwa sapi perah dengan konformasi tubuh yang besar belum tentu akan menghasilkan susu yang lebih banyak, begitu pula sebaliknya dengan konformasi tubuh yang lebih kecil. Kita tahu bahwa variasi konformasi tubuh setelah melahirkan akan sangat mempengaruhi produksi susu sehingga produksi susunya akan sangat bervariasi. Variasi konformasi tubuh ini sering juga kita sebut dengan “type”. Bila variasi konformasi tubuh kita kaitkan dengan sebuah kemajuan dalam produksi susu, maka akan menjadi pertimbangan serius bagi peternak karena semuanya itu tidak terlepas dari aktivitas lingkungan dan genetik. Dimana korelasi keduanya dapat menjadi sumber yang sangat kuat dalam kaitannya dengan produksi susu, akibatnya akan memberikan sebuah variasi konformasi tubuh, selain itu kontribusi kedua faktor tersebut yaitu faktor lingkungan dan genetik dapat menyebabkan variasi produksi susu yang lebih mencolok. Ada beberapa faktor lingkungan dan genetik yang dapat membatasi jumlah produksi susu. Lebih pentingnya bahwa manajemen lingkungan dan genetik dapat meningkatkan produksi susu dalam hal ini tidak terlepas dari performans yang dimiliki oleh sapi perah betina (cows).

Repeatabilitas merupakan nilai akhir dari Heritabilitas dan hanya dihitung pada sifat-sifat yang datangnya berulang, misalnya produksi susu laktasi I, II, dan seterusnya. Konsep genetik dan repeatabilitas yang dapat dimengerti secara ekonomi menjadi sesuatu yang sangat penting dalam membantu mengambil keputusan untuk melakukan pengafkiran (culling) terhadap sapi perah induk yang memiliki penurunan produksi dari setiap kali periode produksinya. Selain itu repeatabilitas juga dapat dilakukan pada sapi perah pejantan. Dan dalam hal ini, repeatabilitas dapat mewakili dalam pendugaan (estimasi) type yang saling berkorelasi. Sebagai satu sistem yang penting untuk diketahui, termasuk waktu dan tempat pengukuran repeatabilitas akan menjadi sangat berpengaruh dalam pendugaan (estimasi) nilai repeatabilitas. Korelasi antara 305 hari mature equivalent (M.E) dengan catatan produksi susu bulan pertama dan bulan kedua dari betina dara, nilai repeatabilitasnya adalah sekira 0,5. Berarti catatan produksi susu betina dara dapat mencapai nilai repeatabilitas 0,5.

Conception rate sapi perah induk setiap tahunnya akan mungkin mempunyai nilai repeatabilitas nol, hal ini dapat kita indikasikan bahwa sapi perah induk hanya mempunyai sedikit atau bahkan sama sekali tidak mempunyai hubungan (korelasi) dengan nilai repeatabilitas perkawinan yang dapat menghasilkan kebuntingan. Selain itu, estimasi ini dapat kita gunakan di dalam melakukan culling sebagai suatu pilihan keputusan manajemen. Selama estimasi dapat membantu kita dalam mengambil satu keputusan terbaik mengenai bagaimana cara mengambil keputusan untuk tahun berikutnya, maka semua itu akan sangat bergantung sekali pada sejauhmana keberhasilan kita dalam mengestimasi produksi berdasarkan nilai repeatabilitas yang diperoleh tahun aktual. Selama milk yieldnya masih menunjukkan angka 50% jelas nyata keunggulannya (atau bisa saja milk yield terendah) pada sapi perah induk selama tahun aktual ini akan lebih nyata pula dari rata-rata milk yield tahun berikutnya. Jika kita ambil dalam bentuk berat, angka milk yield seekor sapi perah induk dewasa dapat mencapai 454,5 kg atau bahkan milk yieldnya dapat menjadi lebih tinggi bila dibandingkan dengan milk yield sapi perah induk lainnya, tapi masih milk yield dalam satu kelompok yang sama untuk tahun aktual yang sama pula, sehingga mungkin saja prediksi terbaik dari milk yield yang kita peroleh hanya mencapai 227,3 kg lebih rendah, dengan kata lain bisa menyimpang dari sebelumnya. Tentu saja kejadian semacam ini bukan menjadi hal baru bagi seorang peternak, apalagi bila terjadi penurunan produksi susu aktual sapi perah induk ini mempunyai perbedaan produksi susu yang sangat mencolok dalam satu kelompok dari setiap kali masa produksi, jelas bahwa produksi susu sapi perah induk bisa lebih baik ataupun bisa lebih buruk daripada perkiraan kita sebenarnya.

Masih dalam satu proses sama yang digunakan pada sapi-sapi perah induk dengan produksi susu di bawah rata-rata; hanya saja satu atau setengah dari sapi-sapi inferior akan muncul kembali pada setiap kali masa produksi. Untuk itu repeatabilitas dapat dijadikan sebagai satu sistem kalkulasi dari Estimated Relative Producting Ability (ERPA) pada DHI. Bila kita mengkalkulasikannya dengan menggunakan ERPA, sebenarnya hanya sedikit saja dari sapi-sapi perah induk yang mempunyai performans permanen (repeatable). Bisa saja dugaan kita menyimpang dari kemungkinan yang seharusnya, dimana dugaan kita bahwa sapi-sapi perah induk superior akan menjadi lebih baik pada tahun berikutnya, tapi kenyataannya rata-rata dari sapi perah induk tersebut bernasib buruk; bahkan sebaliknya sapi-sapi perah induk inferior rata-rata menunjukkan kemampuan produksi relatif lebih baik.

Konsep genetik dan heritabilitas merupakan suatu ukuran derajat yang dipakai dalam menentukan nilai genetik milk yield sebagai indikator dalam pemuliaan. Heritabiltias mempunyai dua pengertian secara luas dan secara sempit. Pengertian secara luas, singkatnya dalam bentuk rumusan (H=VG/VP) atau dengan kata lain heritabilitas adalah perbandingan antara variasi genotip dengan variasi fenotipik, sedangkan dalam arti sempitnya (h=VA/VP) heritabilitas adalah perbandingan antara variasi aditif dengan variasi fenotipik. Makin tinggi nilai heritabilitas suatu sifat yang diseleksi semakin tinggi pula peningkatan sifat yang diperoleh setelah seleksi (Falconer, 1981). Tingginya nilai heritabilitas suatu sifat menunjukkan bahwa korelasi antara ragam fenotipik dan ragam genetik yang besar, sehingga seleksi berdasarkan fenotipik individu-individu merupakan paling efektif, sedangkan jika nilai heritabilitas rendah, sebaiknya seleksi dilakukan berdasarkan kelompok (Lasley, 1978). Untuk maksud meningkatkan mutu genetik dan produktivitas ternak penting diketahui nilai heritabilitas sifat-sifat yang mempunyai nilai ekonomis tinggi (Martojo, 1988).

Walaupun tidak seluruhnya termasuk kedalam kontribusi genetik, secara mendasar bahwa kontribusi genetik dapat digunakan pada seekor bibit yang akan dicobakan untuk dipilih menjadi bibit yang memenuhi standar uji. Secara nyata bahwa heritabilitas merupakan faktor penting diantara beberapa faktor-faktor yang menentukan lainnya. Karena heritabilitas ini dapat menjadi suatu tolak ukur untuk mengetahui sampai sejauhmana kemajuan genetik itu dapat terbentuk dari sebagian kecil karakteristik yang dimiliki oleh sapi perah. Faktor yang merugikan bagi sapi perah betina, dalam percobaan-percobaan yang membuat kemajuan secara genetik adalah sifat-sifat penting ekonomis yang hanya dapat diukur pada betina saja. Kerugian lainnya adalah bahwa heritabilitas rendah atau dapat kita temukan dari beberapa kasus yang pernah ada, menunjukkan nilai heritabilitasnya adalah nol. Dimana nilai heritabilitas nol berarti bahwa tidak terdapat perubahan genetik yang diharapkan dari teknik seleksi yang biasa digunakan. Sebuah ide praktis dari pengertian heritabilitas dapat menjadi ide yang lebih mudah dimengerti. Dapat kita katakan bahwa secara genetik kelompok pejantan dan genetik rata-rata bila dikawinkan maka akan diikuti oleh tingginya produksi pertama betina dara. Setidaknya betina-betina dara ini akan menunjukkan produksi susu rata-rata 454,5 kg dari produksi susu (305-hari, M.E.) lebih tinggi daripada sapi dara yang seumur. Asumsi lain juga bahwa, peningkatan produksi susu dari produksi susu rata-rata bukan merupakan perubahan yang luar biasa (extraordinary) karena perubahan yang diikuti peningkatan produksi sebenarnya dapat pula dipengaruhi faktor lingkungan diantaranya yaitu kesesuaian antara waktu, tatalaksana betina dara yang sehat, faktor lingkungan permanen, faktor lingkungan sementara dan didukung pula oleh lengkapnya catatan pertama produksi.

Berapa banyak produksi susu betina dara bila dibandingkan dengan produksi susu betina dewasa, sampai melahirkan anak dan menghasilkan susu? Dapat mencapai sebanyak 45,5 kg sampai dengan 68,2 kg, bahkan dapat lebih banyak. Milk yield yang ada dari heritabilitas sekitar 20% sampai dengan 30%, dan sejak jantan yang digunakan memenuhi standar rata-rata secara genetik, maka kontribusi jantan dan betina adalah sama secara genotip pada turunannya, hanya sekira 10% sampai dengan 15% dari kamampuan superior induk akan dimiliki kembali oleh turunannya.

Dalam pelaksanaannya diperoleh hanya sedikit saja heritabilitas yang bersesuaian, dari hanya beberapa saja yang kawin (atau kawin menghasilkan susu), yang mana dari pengamatan terhadap heritabilitas tersebut dapat kita fokuskan pada kemampuan tetua menurunkan nilai heritabilitas pada turunannya, dengan demikian perkawinan dapat dikatakan sebagai simpangan produksi dari rata-rata populasi.

 

 

Catatan bahwa ada beberapa sifat reproduksi yang mempunyai nilai heritabilitas sangat rendah. Milk yield dapat menjadi salah satu contoh sifat reproduksi dengan nilai heritabilitas sedang; sedangkan lemak dan protein keduanya mempunyai persentase heritabilitas tinggi. Satu kemungkinan lain rendahnya eksistensi kemajuan genetik dari sifat-sifat penting yang ada dapat terjadi karena nilai heritabilitasnya nol atau memang karena sangat rendahnya nilai heritabilitas yang dimiliki ternak perah tersebut. Di seputar pentingnya nilai heritabilitas apakah mungkin para ahli genetik dapat mengetahui hubungan keragaman sifat genetik nonaditive, dimana diharapkan keragaman genetik nonaditive ini akan menguntungkan bila dimulai dengan melakukan crossbreeding.

Heterosis (hybrid vigor) merupakan satu refleksi type variabilitas genetik. Kerugiaannya, sebenarnya kerugian variabilitas itu dapat kita temukan diantaranya dari beberapa refleksi performans reproduksi, seperti longevity, liviability dan milk yield. Refleksi  performans reproduksi adalah sebagian besar dari kerugian yang disebabkan oleh refleksi heterosis. Walaupun, crossbreeding telah dinyatakan mempunyai beberapa kerugian bagi sapi perah. Sampai saat ini kerugian karena crossbreeding belum dapat diselesaikan ataupun ditutupi kemungkinan kerugian yang dapat ditimbulkannya. Hanya ada beberapa orang ahli genetik saja yang bisa memberikan keputusannya dan berani menyatakan keuntungan keragaman genetik nonaditive dapat diperoleh melalui crossbreeding pada sapi perah. Ternyata dari keputusan beberapa orang ahli genetik tadi ada beberapa peternak yang berani mencoba untuk melakukan crossbreeding pada ternak perahnya.

Konsep-konsep yang seringkali dipakai untuk memajukan genetik, menjadi suatu program khusus yang mengikat. Kenyataannya manajemenpun menjadi ikut andil dalam keberhasilan pelaksanaan program tersebut. Dengan kata lain bahwa efisiensi reproduksi akan menjadi sangat baik bilamana manajemen praktiknya baik. Berarti pelaksanaan praktik manajamen untuk mengetahui kemajuan sifat-sifat produksi dan reproduksi ternak perah yang kita pelihara dapat menjadi pilihan terbaik untuk dilakukan. Melalui program manajemen seleksi yang lebih baik pula dimaksudkan dapat meningkatkan nilai heritabilitas yang sesuai dengan karakter ataupun type ternak perah produktif.

 

Penulis Alumnus S-1 Fakultas Peternakan Bidang Produksi Ternak

Universitas Padjadjaran

 

 

Penyakit Darah Tinggi

PENYAKIT DARAH TINGGI (HIPERTENSI)

 

Sekilas Tentang Penyakit Darah Tinggi (Hipertensi)

 

Seseorang dikatakan menderita penyakit tekanan darah tinggi bila nilai tekanan darah sistoliknya di atas 140 mm Hg dan diastoliknya di atas 90 mm Hg.

 

Dalam istilah kedokteran penyakit tekanan darah tinggi ini disebut dengan nama hipertensi. Meskipun batasannya sudah jelas, nilai mutlak dari batasan hipertensi terus mengalami perubahan. Pengalaman klinis membuktikan bahwa tekanan darah “normal” yang dahulu ditetapkan agak tinggi ternyata masih mendapatkan resiko terkena penyakit jantung dan pembuluh darah (kardiovaskuler).

Catatan :

a.     Jika penderita mempunyai tekanan darah sistolik dan diastolik yang tidak termasuk dalam satu kriteria maka ia termasuk dalam kriteria yang lebih baik. Misalnya seseorang mempunyai tekanan darah 180/120 mm Hg (di baca sistolik 180 mm Hg, diastolik 120 mm Hg). Berdasarkan ketentuan ini orang tersebut tergolong penderita hipetensi derajat 4 atau  sangat berat.

 

b.    Apabila penderita memiliki kerusakan atau resiko hipetensi, maka resiko tersebut harus disebutkan. Misalnya, hipertensi derajat 4 dengan  kencing manis (Diabetes melitus).

 

Cara pengukuran tekanan darah sistolik dan diastolik serta satuannya dapat dijelaskan sebagai berikut:

 

Tekanan darah atau blood pressure adalah tenaga yang dikeluarkan oleh darah untuk dapat mengalir melalui pembuluh darah. Ukuran tekanan darah dinyatakan dengan mm Hg. Hg merupakan singkatan Hydragyrum, yakni air raksa yang berada pada tabung tensimeter yang biasa digunakan untuk mengukur tekanan darah. Jadi, ukuran mm Hg berarti tenaga yang mm air-raksa. Orang yang dikatakan mempunyai tekanan darah 120 mm Hg berarti tenaga yang dikeluarkan oleh darahnya dapat mendorong air daksa di dalam tabung tensimeter setinggi 120 mm.

 

Dikalangan medis alat untuk mengukur tekanan darah disebut Sphygmomanometer kalangan awam menyebutnya tensimeter. Alat ini digunakan untuk mengukur tekanan darah pada pembuluh arteri perrifer.

 

Hipertensi yang diketahui penyebabnya disebut hipertensi sekunder, jumlahnya kurang dari 10% dari seluruh penderita. Hipertensi sekunder disebabkan antara lain oleh penyakit parenkhim ginjal, penyakit pembuluh darah ginjal, kelainan endokrin, koartatio aorta, akibat pemakaian obat, dan lain-lain.

 

Adapun seseorang yang terkena penyakit tekanan darah tinggi yang tidak diketahui pasti bagaimana dia bisa terkena Hipertensi, hal ini dinamakan sebagai hipertensi esensial, yang merupakan problem bagi penderitanya.

 

Riwayat keluarga, merupakan salah satu faktor yang berperan pada hipertensi esensial. Biasanya bila salah satu atau bahkan kedua orang tuanya menderita hipertensi maka anak-anaknya dapat menderita hipertensi juga.

 

Gejala Umum

 

Gejala umum yang ditimbulkan akibat menderita tekanan darah tinggi tidak sama pada setiap orang, bahkan kadang timbul tanpa gejala. Tidak jarang seseorang baru mengetahui menderita tekanan darah tinggi. Sewaktu diukur tekanan darahnya oleh dokter yang memeriksanya untuk skrening kesehatan atau karena keluhan penyakit lain.

 

Sering penderita terkejut sewaktu dinyatakan bahwa ia menderita hipertensi. Sedangkan selama ini ia tidak pernah merasa sakit kepala atau sering marah.

 

Secara umum gejala yang dikeluhkan oleh penderita tekanan darah tinggi sebagai berikut:

1.     Sakit kepala

2.     Rasa pegal dan tidak nyaman pada tengkuk

3.     Perasaan berputar seperti tujuh keliling serasa ingin jatuh

4.     Berdebar atau detak jantung terasa cepat

5.     Telinga berdengung

 

 

Macam Tanaman Obat Tradisional yang dapat digunakan untuk Pengobatan Hipertensi

Alang-alang

 

Alang-alang. Meskipun banyak tumbuh liar, rimpangnya ternyata bermanfaat untuk mengobati tekanan darah tinggi

(Imperata cylindrica (L) Beauv.), Famili : Poacead (Gramineae)

 

 

 

1.      Nama

 

a.     Sinonim

Impreata arundinacea Cyrillo.,

Lagurus cylindricus L.

 

 

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: naleuaeng lako, jih, rih, laturai, lalang, lioh, oo, hilalang. Jawa : alang-alang, eurih, kambengan, kebut, lalang, wululan. Kalimantan : halalang, tingen. Nusa Tenggara: ambengan, re, ati, ndolo, witu, kii, luo. Sulawesi: he, padang, padanga, padongo, deya, reja. Maluku : ri, weli, weri, wela, hutu, palate, putune, ige, weri, weljo, kuso, kusu-kusu. Irian: gombur, ruren, mesofou, ukua, mentahoi, matawe, urmamu, omasa.

 

c.     Nama asing

Bai mao gen, snijgras, lalang grass, blady grass, echtes silberhaargras

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

 

Alang-alang banyak tumbuh liar di hutan, ladang, lapangan rumput, dan sisi jalan pada daerah kering yang mendapat sinar matahari. Lokasi tumbuh dapat ditemukan pada ketinggian 1 – 2.700 m di atas permukaan laut (dpl).

 

Tema menahun ini tumbuh tegak, tingginya 30 – 180 cm. Mudah berkembang biak dengan rimpang atau bagian akar. Rimpang ini kaku dan tumbuh menjalar panjang, padat, berbuku-buku, dan berambut jarang. Daun berbentuk lurus panjang, tegak urjungnya runcing, berambut jarang, kasar, panjang 180 cm, lebar 3 cm, warnanya hijau. Bunga berupa bulir majemuk bertangkai panjang, warnanya putih, mudah diterbangkan oleh angin, agak menguncup, panjang 6 – 30 cm. Pada 1 tangkai terdapat 2 bulir, letaknya bersusun. Yang terletak di atas adalah bunga sempurna dan yang terletak di bawah adalah bunga mandul. Panjang bulir sekitar 3 mm. Pada pangkal bulir terdapat rambut halus, panjang dan padat, warnanya putih. Biji jorong, panjang sekitar 1 mm, warnanya cokelat tua.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

 

Alang-alang memiliki sifat manis dan sejuk. Bila diminum dapat menurunkan panas, meluruhkan kencing, menghentikan pendarahan, dan menghilangkan haus. Herba ini masuk ke meridian paru-paru, lambung, dan usus kecil.

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

 

Akar dan batangnya mengandung manitol, glukosa, sakharosa, malic acid, citric acid, coixol, arundoin, cylindrin, femenol, simiarenol, dan anemonin.

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Rimpang atau akar.

 

6.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing

 

 

 

Bayam Duri

 

(Amaranthus spinosus L.) Famili: Amaranthaceae

Bayam duri. Ciri kahasnya batang berwarna kemerahan dan memiliki duri

1. Nama

 

a.     Sinonim

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: bayam kerui. Jawa: senggang cucuk, bayam eri, b. raja, b. roda, b. cikron, tarnyak duri, t. lakek. Nusa Tenggara: bayem kikihan, b. siap, kerug pasih. Sulawesi: bayam baduri, kedawa mawau, karawa rap-rap, karowa kawayo, sinau ktinting, podo maduri. Maluku: maijanga, ma hohoru, baya, loda.

c.     Nama asing

Le xian cai, stekelamarant.

 

1.      Uraian tanaman

 

Bayam duri dapat ditemukan tumbuh liar di semak-semak, tepi jalan dan tanah kosong yang terlantar. Tempatnya dari dataran rendah sampai 1.400 m dpl.

 

Tema semusim ini memiliki batang yang tegak, tinggi 30-100 cm, dan kerapkali bercabang banyak. Batangnya berwarna kemerahan, bagian pangkal berkayu, polos, tetapi bagian atas sedikit berambut. Akar memiliki serat yang tipis, tumbuh dalam di tanah. Daun tunggal, tumbuh berseling, warna hijau, bentuk bundar telur memanjang sampai lanset, panjang 1,5-6 cm, lebar 1-3 cm, ujung tumpul, pangkal runcing, tepi rata yang kadang-kadang beringgit. Tulang daun di punggung menonjol, tangkainya panjang. Pada ketiak daun terdapat sepasang duri keras yang mudah lepas. Bunga berkelamin tunggal. Bunga wanita berkumpul dalam tukal yang rapat berbentuk bola di ketiak daun. Bunga jantan berbentuk bulir yang dapat bercabang pada pangkalnya, terdapat di ujung batang berwarna hijau keputihan.

 

Akarnya dimasak dalam arak merah, dapat diminum untuk mendatangkan haid bila terlambat bulan. Selain itu, akar juga dapat dipakai untuk pengobatan disentri, keputihan, atau TBC kelenjar. Daunnya dapat melarutkan lendir pada bronkhitis kronis atau sebagai obat luar untuk luka-luka yang panas, mempercepat pematangan bisul, wasir, eksim, demam, menambah produksi ASI, serta gusi luka dan berdarah.

   

   Perbanyakan dengan biji.

 

2.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

 

Bayam duri mempunyai sifat manis, pahit, dan sejuk. Herba ini masuk kemeridian jantung dan ginjal. Dapat menghilangkan panas (antipiretik), meluruhkan kencing (diuretik), menghilangkan racun (antioksidan), menghilangkan bengkak, obat diare, serta membersihkan darah.

 

3.     Kandungan kimia

 

Amarantin, rutin, kalium nitrat, piridoksin, garam-garam fosfat, zat besi, serta vitamin A, C, dan K.

 

4.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Akar

 

5.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing

 

 

Belimbing Manis

(Averrhoa carambola L.), Famili: Osalidaceae

 

 

Belimbing manis. Dengan memakannya sebagai buah segar tekanan darah yang tinggi dapat menurun

1. Nama

 

a.     Sinonim

Acerrhoa pentandra Blanco.

 

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: asom jorbing, belimbing manis, b. manih. Jawa: belimbing legi, bhalimbhing

manes, blimbing lenger, b. lingir, calingcing amis, libi melai. Sulawesi: lupias manis, rumpiasa, lumpiat morominit, loplas eme, lembetue lombiato, lombituko gula, takule, bainang sulapa, pulirang taning, balireng, nggalabila. Maluku: baknil kasluir, haurela pasaki, taulela pasaki, ifel emroro, amlibi, balibi totofuko, tufuo.

 

c.     Nama asing

Yang tao, carambola.

 

1.      Uraian tanaman

Belimbing biasa ditanam sebagai pohon buah-buahan. Kadang-kadang ditemukan tumbuh liar di daerah tropik yang beriklim panas dan lembap. Di Indonesia dapat tumbuh dari dataran rendah sampai perbukitan dengan ketinggian kurang dari 500 m dpl.

 

Tanamannya berbentuk pohon, tinggi mencapai 12 m. percabangan banyak yang arahnya agak mendatar sehingga pohon ini tampak menjadi rindang. Berbunga sepanjang tahun sehingga buahnya tak  kenal musim.

 

Daun belimbing berupa daun majemuk menyirip ganjil dengan anak daun berbentuk bulat telur, ujung runcing, tepi rata, permukaan atas mengkilap, permukaan tersusun berupa malai, warnanya merah keunguan, keluar dari ketiak daun dan di ujung cabang, ada juga yang keluar dari dahannya. Buahnya merupakan buah buni, berusuk lima, bila dipotong melintang berbentuk bintang. Panjang buah 4 – 12,5 cm, berdaging, dan banyak mengandung air, saat masak warnanya kuning. Rasanya manis sampai asam. Biji berwarna putih kotor kecokelatan, pipih, berbentuk elips dengan kedua ujung lancip.

 

Daun dan batang mengandung asam oksalat sehingga rasanya asam. Air perasan buah belimbing dapat dipakai untuk menghilangkan karat pada logam.

    Perbanyakan dengan biji, okulasi, atau cangkok.

 

2.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

a)     Buah: rasa asam, manis, dan netral. Berguna sebagai antiradang, peluruh kencing (diuretik), atau peluruh liur.

b)    Bunga: rasa manis dan netral. Dapat dipakai sebagai obat antimalaria.

c)     Batang dan daun: rasa asam, kelat, netral. Bermanfaat sebagai antiradang, peluruh kencing, serta penghilang panas.

d)    Akar: rasa asam, kelat (astringent), dan netral. Dapat menghilangkan sakit (analgetik) dan sebagai obat antirematik.

 

3.     Kandungan kimia

Buah mengandung protein, lemak, kalsium, phospor, besi, serta vitamin A, B, dan C.

 

4.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Buah, daun, dan batang.

 

5.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing.

 

Catatan:

Apabila permukaan air kencing mengandung krsital oksalat maka hindarkan pemakaian daun dan buah belimbing sebagai obat hipertensi karena dapat membentuk batu saluran kencing.

 

Belimbing Wuluh

(Averrhoa bilimbi L.), Famili: Oxalidaceae

Belimbing wuluh. Rebusan air belimbing wuluh yang sudah dingin dan disaring dapat menjadi obat tekanan darah tinggi

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.      Nama

a.     Sinonim

–

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: limeng, selimeng, thlimeng (Aceh), selemeng (Gayo), asom, belimbing, balimbingan (Batak), malimbi (Nias) balimbieng (Minangkabau), belimbing asam (Melayu), balimbing (Lampung). Jawa: blimbing wuluh (jawa), calincing, balingbing (Sunda). Bhalimbing bulu (Madura). Nusa  Tenggara: blingbing buloh  (Bali), limbi (Bima), libi (Sawu), balimbeng (Flores), belerang (Sangi). Sulawesi: lumpias, rumpeasa dureng, wulidan, lopias. Lembetue (Gorontalo), lombituko 9Buol), tangkurera (Baree), bainang (Makasar), celene (Bugis). Maluku: niniludae lok (Roti), kerbol (Timor, Kai)takurela (Ambon), balimbi (Ulias), taprera (Buru). Malimbi (Halmahera), miri-miri (Kapaur). Irian Jaya: uteke.

 

c.     Nama asing

Blimbi, cucumber tree (Inggris), kamias (Philipina).

 

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

Belimbing wuluh banyak ditanam sebagai pohon buah. Kadang-kadang tumbuh liar dan dapat ditemukan dari dataran rendah sampai 500 m dpl. Pohon yang berasal dari Amerika tropis ini menghendaki tempat tumbuh yang terkena cahaya matahari langsung dan cukup lembap. Rasa buahnya asam, digunakan sebagai sirop penyegar atau bahan penyedap masakan. Selain itu berguna untuk membersihkan noda pada kain, mengkilapkan barang-barang yang terbuat dari kuningan, membersihkan tangan yang kotor, atau sebagai bahan obat tradisional.

 

Pohonnya tergolong kecil, tinggi mencapai 10 m dengan batang tidak begitu besar, kasar berbenjol-benjol, dan mempunyai garis tengah hanya sekitar 30 cm. Percabangan sedikit, arahnya condong ke atas, cabang muda berambut halus seperti beludru berwarna cokelat muda. Daun berupa daun majemuk menyirip ganjil dengan 21 – 45 pasang anak daun. Anak daun bertangkai pendek, bentuknya bulat telur sampai jorong, ujung runcing, pangkal membundar, tepi rata, panjang 2 – 10 cm, lebar 1 – 3 cm, warnanya hijau, permukaan bawah warnanya lebih muda. Bunga kecil-kecil berbentuk bintang, warnanya ungu kemerahan. Buahnya merupakan buah buni, bentuk  bulat lonjong bersegi, panjang 4 – 6,5 cm, warnanya hijau kekuningan, bila masak berair banyak, dan rasanya asam. Biji bentuknya bulat telur tetapi agak pipih.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Rasa asam dan sejuk. Dapat menghilangkan sakit (analgetik), memperbanyak pengeluaran empedu, antiradang, peluruh kencing, dan juga sebagai astringent.

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

Batang mengandung saponin, tanin, glucisude, calsium oksalat, sulfur, asam format, dan peroksidase.

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Buah.

6.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh.

 

Boroco

(Celsia argentea L.), Famili: Amaranthaceae

Boroco. Bagian tanaman yang berkhasiat untuk mengobati tekanan darah tinggi ialah bijinya

 

 

1.      Nama

 

a.     Sinonim

C. linearis Sweet,

C. magaritacea Lin

 

b.    Nama daerah

Bayam ekor belanda (Pantai Timur

Sumatera), bayam kucing (Maluku), boroco, sangsri, (Sunda), cuca (Jawa), kuntha (Kangean), baya kasubiki (Ternate).

 

c.     Nama asing

Qing xiang zi, feather cockscomb seed, wild coxcomb.

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

 

Boroco merupakan tanaman liar yang banyak tumbuh di tepi jalan, tepi sekolah, tegalan, kebun-kebun yang terlantar dan tempat-tempat lainnya pada daerah berpasir dan terkena cahaya matahari. Kadang-kadang boroco terlihat ditanam di halaman sebagai tanaman hias atau tanaman sayur. Tanaman yang mungkin berasal dari Amerika ini dapat ditemukan pada tempat dengan ketinggian 1 – 1.700 m dpl. Daunnya dapat dimakan sebagai lalap, bijinya digunakan sebagai penghias kue atau makanan.

 

Tema setahun ini tumbuh tegak, tinggi 30 – 100 cm, batangnya bulat dengan alur kasar memanjang, dan bercabang banyak. Daun tunggal, bentuknya bulat telur sampai lanset memanjang, panjangnya  5 – 15 cm, ujung runcing, tepi bergerigi halus hampir rata. Warna daun ada yang merah dan ada yang hijau. Bunga bentuk bulir, bulat silindris, rapat namun ke arah ujung semakin jarang, panjang 3 – 10 cm, dan bertangkai, keluar dari ujung-ujung percabangan, warnanya merah muda atau ungu. Buah lebar, bulat telur sungsang, berisi 3 – 9 biji, warnanya hitam agak cerah.

Perbanyakan dengan biji.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Rasa pahit dan sejuk. Bermanfaat untuk menghentikan perdarahan (hemostatik), pengobatan radang mata, dan tekanan darah tinggi.

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

–

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Biji.

 

6.     Cara kerja

Tidak diketahui.

 

Catatan: herba ini dilarang digunakan bila tekanan bola mata meninggi (glaucoma).

 

Daun Sendok

(Plantago mayor L.), Famili: Plantaginaceae

Daun sendok. Gulma liar yang berdaun unik ini bermanfaat pula sebagai tanaman obat

 

 

1.      Nama

 

a.     Sinonim

Plantago asiatica L.,

P. crenata Blanco.,

P. deoressa Willd.,

P. erosa Wall.,

P. Loureiri Roem. Et. Schult.,

P. media Blanco.

 

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: daun urat, daun urat-urat, daun sendok, ekor angin, kuping menjangan (Melayu). Jawa: ki urat,

ceuli, ceuli uncal (Sunda), meloh kiloh, otot-ototan, sangkabuwah, sangkubah, sangkuwah, sembung otot, suri pandak (Jawa). Sulawesi: torongoat (Minahasa).

 

c.     Nama asing

Che qien, plantain, weegbree, wegerich, way berad.

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

Daun sendok merupakpan tanaman liar yang mengganggu (gulma) di perkebunan teh atau karet. Tumbuh liar di hutan, ladang, halaman berumput atau pekarangan rumah yang agak lembap dan sedikit terlindung atau terkena sinar matahari langsung. Dapat ditemukan sampai ketinggian 3.300 m dpl. Tema tahunan ini berasal dari daratan Asia dan Eropa. Tumbuh tegak dengan tinggi sekitar 15 – 20 cm.

 

Daun tunggal, bentuknya bulat telur sampai lanset melebar, ukuran panjang 5 – 10 cm, lebar 4 – 9 cm. Tepi daun rata atau bergerigi kasar tidak teratur. Permukaan daun licin atau agak berambut, warnanya hijau. Daun bertulang sejajar dan mempunyai tangkai yang panjang, tumbuh berkumpul di atas tanah membentuk roset akar. Bunga kecil-kecil berwarna putih tersusun dalam bulir yang panjangnya sekitar 30 cm. Bentuk buah bulat telur atau lonjong, saat masak warnanya hitam.

 

Sebagai tanaman liar yang berkhasiat obat, daun sendok banyak ditanam di pekarangan sebagai pelengkap tanaman obat keluarga. Bijinya dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai obat kuat laki-laki (aphrodisiak).

Perbanyakan dengan biji.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Rasa manis dan dingin. Dapat dipakai untuk antiradang, peluruh kencing (diuretik), peluruh dahak (mukolitik), obat batuk (antitusif), serta memperbaiki penglihatan dengan menormalkan aktivitas hati (liver) yang berlebihan.

 

 

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

Seluruh herba mengandung plantagin, aucubin, ursolic acid. b-sitosterol, n-hentriacontane, dan plantaglucide yang terdiri dari methyl D-galacturonate, D-galactose, L-arabinose dan L-rhmamose. Selain itu mengandung vitamin B1, C, A, dan kalium. Biji mengandung planterolic acid, plantasan (dengan komposisi xylose, arabinose, galcturonic acid,  dan rhammose), protein, succinic acid, adenine, choline, catalpol, asam lemak palmitic acid, stearic acid, arachidic acid, linolenic acid, dan lenoleic acid.

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Seluruh tanaman.

 

6.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing.

 

Jagung

(Zen mays L.), Famili: Poaceae (Gramineae)

Jagung.  Tongkol, rambut, hingga akarnya dapat dimanfaatkan untuk penyakit darah tinggi

 

 

1.      Nama

 

a.     Sinonim

–

 

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: eyako, jagong, jaung, jagung, jagul, jagueng. Jawa: jagong, jagung, janggel, jhaghung, bhuntebhun. Kalimantan: jagung, jagong, katawung, boja,

jelem pagung, coli, jelai, baha. Nusa Tenggara: jagung, jago, wataru, kanorung, terae jawa, latung, wata, fata, watah, pelak, pena, batar. Sulawesi: toigu, batos, binte, bincde, birale, warele, dale. Maluku: slaru, kastele, ara kastera, bara kastera, jagong, kilate, jagumu, jango, biskutu, pastela. Irian: tarigi, kas-tera, kasera, kawokin, kati buro, meru.

 

c.     Nama asing

Yu shu shu, mais, maize, turkse tarwe, indian corn, ble de turquie.

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

Jagung berasal dari Amerika. Bahan pangan ini ditanam pada daerah kering dari dataran rendah sampai 2.000 dpl.

 

Rumput tegak ini merupakan tanaman semusim, batangnya kasar, tinggi 0,6 – 3 m, dan berakar serabut. Helaian daun berbentuk pipih, panjang 35 – 100 cm, lebar 3 – 12 cm, ujung meruncing, tepi bergelombang, dan bertulang sejajar. Bungan jantan berbentuk malai keluar dari ujung batang, warnanya putih kekuningan. Bungan betina keluar dari ketiak daun berbentuk tongkol. Buah masak berwarna kuning sampai oranye. Biji tersusun dalam tongkol yangpanjangnya 8 – 20 cm.

 

Seluruh tanaman ini berkhasiat obat, mulai dari biji, rambut, tongkol, akar, hingga daun. Penyakit batu ginjal dapat diatasi dengan minuman rebusan tongkol jagung setiap hari, tentunya dalam waktu lama. Biji jagung tua yang disangrai hingga retak-retak dan renyah yang dimakan setiap hari akan melancarkan keluarnya air susu ibu.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

a)     Biji: manis dan netral. Masuk ke meridian usus besar dan lambung. Dapat mengharmoniskan sentral organ, meningkatkan nafsu makan, menguatkan paru-paru, dan menetralkan jantung.

b)    Akar: peluruh kencing (diuretik).

c)     Tongkol: manis dan netral. Berguna untuk menguatkan limpa dan sebagai peluruh kencing, serta menurunkan tekanan darah (hipotensif).

d)    Rambut: manis dan netral. Bermanfaat untuk peluruh kencing, hipotensif, menghilangkan panas, menetralisir hati, serta melancarkan pengeluaran empedu.

 

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

a)     Biji: gula, zeaksantin, protein, asam maizenik, asam heksafosfor, vitamin B1, B2, dan B6.

b)    Rambut: potassium nitrate, vitamin K, a-tocopherylquinone, b-sitosterol, stigmasterol, yushushu acid, dan volatile alkaloid.

c)     Minyak jagung: linoleic acid 50%, oleic acid 37%, palmitic acid 10%, dan stearic acid 3%.

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Rambut, tongkol, dan akar.

 

6.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing dan cara lain yang belum diketahui.

 

Catatan:

Tongkol dan rambut jagung sudah dibuat obat paten.

 

Kayu Manis

(Cinnamomum burmannii (Nees) BI.), Famili: Lauraceae

Kayu manis. Memilik rasa pedas, seidikit manis, hangat, dan wangi.

1. Nama

a.     Sinonim

Cinnamomum chinense BI.,

Dulce Nees.,

C. pedunculatum  (non Nees) Groff.,

Laurus burmanni C.G.et.T.F.L.Nees.,

L. cinnamomum Hort. Berol.,L. dulcis Roxb.

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: holim, holim manis, padang kulik manih, kayu manis, kanigar, modang sia-siak. Jawa: huru mentek, ki amis, manis jangan, kanyegar. Nusa Tenggara: kasingar, kecingar, cingar, onte, kuninggu, pundinga.

 

c.     Nama asing

Yin xiang pi, cinnamon tree, kaneelkassia.

 

1.      Uraian tanaman

Kayu manis dapat ditemukan tumbuh  liar di hutan, juga banyak ditanam di kebun-kebun, pinggir jalan, atau tempat-tempat rekreasi pada ketinggian 0 – 2.000 m dpl. Namun, kayu manis tumbuh baik pada tanah yang subur, gembur, agak berpasir, dan kaya bahan organik, pada ketinggian 500 – 1.500 m dpl.

 

Tanaman berbentuk pohon, tingginya 5 – 15 m, dan berakar tunggang. Kulit pohon berwarna abu-abu tua berbau khas. Kayunya berwarna merah cokelat muda. Daun tunggal, kaku seperti kulit, panjang tangkai daun 0,5 – 1,5 cm. Letak daun berseling. Bentuk daun elips memanjang, panjang 4 – 14 cm, lebar 1,5 – 6 cm, ujung runcing dengan tepi rata. Permukaan daun sebelah atas licin, warnanya hijau, permukaan bawah bertepung warnanya keabu-abuan dan mempunyai 3 buah tulang daun yang melengkung. Daun muda berwarna merah pucat, tetapi ada varietas yang berwarna hijau ungu. Bunga kecil-kecil berwarna hijau putih, berkumpul dalam rangkaian berupa malai, panjang tangkai bunga 4 – 12 mm, berambut halus, keluar dari ketiak daun atau ujung percabangan. Buahnya buah buni, bulat memanjang, panjang sekitar 1 cm, warnanya merah. Bijinya kecil, bulat telur, saat masih muda warnanya hijau, setelah tua menjadi hitam.

 

Dalam dunia perdagangan dikenal dengan nama Cassia vera, berguna sebagai bumbu masak atau bahan penyedap untuk pembuatan kue, juga sebagai ramuan obat  mencret, sakit perut, nyeri lambung, sariawan, batuk, asma, masuk angin, tekanan darah tinggi, rematik sendi kronis, sakit pinggang, dan sebagainya.

Perbanyakan dengan biji atau tunas berakar.

 

2.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Pedas, seikit manis, hangat, dan wangi. Bermanfaat sebagai peluruh kentut, peluruh keringat, antirematik, meningkatkan nafsu makan, serta menghilangkan sakit.

 

 

 

3.     Kandungan kimia

Minyak atsiri, eugenol, safrole, cinnamaldehyde, tanin, kalsium oksalat, damar, dan zat penyamak.

 

4.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Kulit batang.

 

5.     Cara kerja

Tidak diketahui.

 

Ketepeng Kecil

(Cassia tota L.), Famili: Caesalpiniaceae (Leguminosae)

Ketepeng kecil. Bijinya yang dikeringkan mengandung zat yang bermanfaat untuk pengobatan tekanan darah tinggi

 

 

1.      Nama

 

a.     Sinonim

Cassia foetida Salisb.,

C. obstusifolia L.,

Tegera Lamk.

 

 

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: idarang (Simalur). Jawa: katepeng,k.lembut, k. leutik

(Sunda), katepeng, k. sapi, k. cilik (Jawa). Nusa Tenggara: pepo (Timur). Melayu: gelenggang kecil, g. padang, ketepeng, k. kecil.

 

c.     Nama asing

Jue ming zi atau cassia.

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

Ketepeng kecil tumbuh liar, sering ditemukan secara berkelompok di ladang yang berumput, daerah tepi sungai, semak belukar, dan tanah terlantar. Kadang-kadnag ditanam orang sebagai tanaman hias. Perdu yangberasal dari Amerika tropik ini menyukai tempat terbuka atau agak teduh, dapat tumbuh dari dataran rendah sampai 800 m dpl.

 

Perdu kecil ini berumur pendek, tumbuh tegak dengan tinggi sekitar 1 m. Batang utamanya lurus, bagian pangkal berkayu, bercabang lebar dengan daerah ujung batang berambut jarang. Percabangan di bagian bawah sering terletak permukaan tanah. Daun letaknya berseling, merupakan daun majemuk menyurup ganda, terdiri dari 3 pasang anak daun yang bentuknya bulat telur sungsang, panjang 2 – 3 cm, lebar 1,5 – 3 cm, ujung membulat, dengan pangkal meruncing. Warnanya hijau. Permukaan bawah daun berambut halus. Bunganya bunga majemuk yang tersusun dalam rangkaian tandan, keluar dari ketiak daun, warnanya kuning. Ketepeng kecil memiliki buah polong yang berkulit keras, berisi 20 – 30 biji yang bentuknya melengkung. Warna buah cokelat kekuningan mengkilap.

 

Ketepeng kecil baik sebagai pupuk hijau untuk perkebunan karet dan teh. Daun dapat dimakan sebagai sayur. Remasan daunnya bersama adas pulosari dapat digunakan untuk pengobatan penyakit gudik atau dioleskan pada kepala anak kecil yang tidak tenang dan sulit tidur.

Perbanyakan dengan biji.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Rasa manis, pahit dan asin, agak dingin. Berkhasiat untuk pengobatan radang mata, peluruh kencing (diuretik), serta melancarkan buang air besar. Herba ini memiliki kemampuan membersihkan hati (liver) dan menguatkan ginjal.

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

Biji segar mengandung chryzophanol, emodin, aloe-emodin, rhein, physcion, obtusin, aurantio-obtusin, rubrobusarin, torachryson, toralactone, dan vitamin A.

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Biji dikeringkan.

6.     Cara kerja

Ketepeng kecil sudah dibuat obat paten.

 

 

Kumis Kucing

(Orthosiphon aristatus (BI.) Miq), Famili: Labiatae (Lamiaceae)

Kumis kucing. Sudah terkenal sebagai tanaman obat tradisional yang bermanfaat

1. Nama

 

a.     Sinonim

Orthosiphon grandiflorum

etaristatum BI.,

O. grandiflorus  Bold.,

O. longiflorum Ham.,

O. spiralis Merr.,

O. stamineus Benth.,

Clerodedranthus spicatus

(Thunb) C.Y. Wu.,

Trichostemma spiralis

 Lour.

 

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: kumis kucing (Melayu). Jawa: kumis kucing, singkir (Sunda), remujung (Jawa), sesalaseyan, soengot koceng (Madura).

 

c.     Nama asing

Mao xu cao, kattesnor, cats whiskers.

 

1.      Uraian tanaman

Tanaman ini di pulau Jawa dan tempat-tempat lainnya di Nusantara tumbuh liar sepanjang anak sungai dan selokan, di tempat-tempat  teduh dan tidak begitu kering, kadang ditanam di pekarangan sebagai tanaman obat. Lokasi dapat ditemukan sampai ketinggian 700 m dpl.

 

Kumis kucing merupakan terna tahunan, berakar tunggang, tumbuh tegak, tinggi 1 – 2 m, batang segi empat agak beralur warnanya cokelat kehijauan, berambut pendek atau gundul, bagian pangkal berakar di bagian buku-bukunya. Daun tunggal, bundar telur sampai lonjong, lanset atau belah ketupat, berambut halus, tepi bergerigi kasar, kedua permukaan berbintik kelenjar. Bunga tersusun dalam tandan yang keluar di ujung ranting dan percabangan, warna ungu pucat atau putih, benag sari lebih panjang dari tabung bunga. Buah kotak berbentuk bulat telur, warnanya hijau setelah tua berubah menjadi cokelat gelap. Bijinya kecil, saat masih muda berwarna hijau setelah tua menjadi hitam.

 

Herba ini selain berkhasiat sebagai peluruh kencing, juga untuk pengobatan infeksi ginjal dan kandung kencing, kencing batu, serta encok akibat kelebihan asam urat (gout arthritis).

 

2.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Manis sedikit pahit dan sejuk. Bermanfaat sebagai antiradang, peluruh kencing, serta penghancur batu saluran kencing.

 

3.     Kandungan kimia

Orthosiphon glikosida, zat samak, minyak asiri, minyak lemak, sapofonin, garam kalium, dan myoinositol.

 

4.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Daun.

 

5.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing.

 

Leunca

(Solanum nigrum L.), Famili: Solanaceae

Leunca. Dapat dicampur sebagai masakan atau dilalap mentah, bermanfaat untuk penderita tekanan darah tinggi.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.      Nama

a.     Sinonim

Solanum fistulosum et miniatum Rich.,

S. incertum Dun.,

S. nodiflarum Jacq. var. Macrophyllum Dunal.,

S. triangulare et villosum Lamk.,

S. uliginosum et rhino ceotis BI.

 

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: rampai, ranti. Jawa: leunca badak, leunca hayam, leunca manuk, lenca pahit, leunca piit, ranti. Maluku: anti, boose, bobose.

 

c.     Nama asing

Long kui (Cina), black nightshade (Inggris), zwarte nachtschade (Belanda), morelle moire (Perancis), schwartzer nachtschatten (Jerman).

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

Leunca banyak ditanam orang di pekarangan, ladang, dan tempat-tempat lain yang cukup mendapat air dan sinar matahari, kadang-kadang ditemukan tumbuh liar. Penyebarannya ke seluruh Nusantara. Di pulau Jawa tanaman ini terdapat di dataran rendah sampai ketinggian 3.000 m dpl.

 

Tanaman semusim ini berbatang tegak, tinggi 30 – 175 cm, banyak bercabang. Daun tunggal, bertangkai, letaknya berselng, dan terdapat dalam kelompok-kelompok. Bentuk daun bulat telur, ujung dan pangkalnya meruncing, tepi berombak sampai rata. Karangan bunga berbentuk malai dengan jumlah bunga antara 2 –10 kuntum, warnanya putih atau lembayung. Buahnya buah buni, terdapat dalam tandan-tandan, berbentuk bulat, berisi banyak biji dengan diameter 0,8 – 1 cm. Warnanya hijau, bila masak warnanya menjadi hitam atau ungu kehitaman mengkilap.

 

Buahnya bila dikunyah terasa renyah, sedikit pahit, dan agak langu. Buah muda biasa dimakan sebagai lalap atau dimasak dengan cabai dan tauco. Daun dan cabang muda bisa dimakan, baik mentah, direbus, atau dikukus. Herba ini dapat digunakan untuk pengobatan kanker seperti hamil anggur (malignant hydatidiform mole), chorionic epithelioma, kanker mulut rahim (ca cervix), kanker payudara, oesophagus, liver, dan lambung.

Perbanyakan dengan  biji.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Rasa pahit, dingin, dan sedikit beracun. Berguna sebagai penurun panas, pembersih panas dan racun, antiradang, peluruh kencing, penghilang bengkak, pelancar darah, peluruh dahak, pereda batuk, pereda sesak, dan penghilang gatal (antipruritus).

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

Tanaman ini mengandung glikoalkaloid solanine, solasonine, solamargine, solasodine, diosgenin, tifogenin, juga mengandung sedikit atropine dan saponin, zat samak dan minyak lemak, mineral kalsium, fosfor, besi, serta vitamin A dan C. Solasodine mempunyai efek menghilangkan sakit (analgetik), penuru panas, antiradang, dan anti-shock. Solamargine dan solasonine mempunyai efek anti bakteri. Solanine mempunyai efek antimitosis. Ekstrak daun leunca mampu menekan ascitic sarcoma 180 pada tikus, menstimulasi pembentukan sel-sel darah dan bersifat anticholline esterase kuat. Efek antineoplastik (antikanker) digunakan pada vervical  carcinoma 14, ehrlich ascitic carcinoma tipe parenchymal, dan sarcoma 180.

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Buah atau seluruh tanaman.

 

6.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing.

Catatan:

Efek samping leunca menimbulkan perasaan tidak enak (discomfort) pada orang-orang yang minum rebusan tanamna ini. Secara individu dapat merasa sedikit lemah, mulut dan kerongkongan kering, mengantuk, penglihatan kabur, sakit kepala, mual, muntah, dan mencret.

Mengkudu

(Mirnda citrifolia L.), Famili: Rubiaceae

Mengkudu. Buahnya bertonjolan kasar dan berpenampilan kurang menarik

 

 

1.      Nama

a.     Sinonim

Bancudus latifolia Rumph.

 

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: eodu, eoru, keumudee, lengkudu, bangkudu, bengkudu, bakudu, bingkudu,

pamarai, mangkudu, mengkudu, neteu. Jawa: kudu, cangkudu, kemudu, pace. Kalimantan: mengkudu, wangkudu, labanau. Nusa Tenggara: tibah, wungkudu, ai kombo, manakudu, bakulu.

 

c.     Nama asing

Hai baji, indian mulberry.

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

Mengkudu tersebar dari daratan Asia tropis sampai Polynesia. Di Indonesia tanaman ini tumbuh liar di pantai, hutan, dan ladang atau ditanam di pekarangan sebagai tanaman sayur atau tanaman obat. Tempat hidup dapat ditemukan dari dataran rendah sampai 500 m dpl. Penduduk menanam mengkudu karena kulit akarnya mengandung zat warna merah yang dapat dipakai untuk memberi warna pada kain batik, anyaman pandan, atau mendorong.

 

Daun muda biasa dikukus atau direbus dan dimakan sebagai lalap atau untuk membungkus pindang ikan teri. Buah muda direbus untuk lalap. Buah setengah matang dirujak. Buah matang untuk membersihkan karat pada logam atau untuk mencuci rambut (keramas).

 

Mengkudu merupakan perdu atau pohon kecil yang tumbuh agak membengkok, tinggi 3 – 8 m, banyak bercabang dengan ranting persegi empat. Letak daun berhadapan secara bersilang, bertangkai, bentuknya bulat telur lebar sampai berbentuk elips, panjang 10–40 cm, lebar 5 – 17 cm, tebal, mengkilap, tepi rata, ujung runcing, bagian pangkal menyempit, tulang daunnya menyirip, warna hijau tua. Bunga keluar dari ketiak daun, 5 – 8 bunga berkumpul dalam karangan berbentuk bonggol. Mahkota berbentuk tabung. Bentuk bunga seperti terompet, warna putih, baunya harum. Buah bertangkai, bentuknya bulat lonjong, berupa buah buni majemuk yang berkumpul menjadi satu sebagai buah yang besar, panjang 5 – 10 cm, permukaan tidak rata berbenjol-benjol, warnanya hijau. Buah masak berdaging dan berair, warnanya kuning pucat atau kuning kotor, berbau busuk, berisi banyak biji yang berwarna cokelat kehitaman.

Perbanyakan dengan biji.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Mengkudu berkhasiat sebagai penghilang hawa lembap pada tubuh, penambah kekuatan tulang,  pembersih darah, peluruh kencing (diuretik), peluruh haid (emenagog), pelembut kulit, obat batuk, obat cacing (anthelmintik), pencahar, dan sebagai antiseptik.

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

Kulit akar mengandung morindin, morindon, aligarin-d-methylether, dan soranjidiol. Daun mengandung protein, zat kapur, zat besi, karoten, dan askorbin. Tanaman ini juga mengandung minyak asam capron dan asam kaprylat yang mudah menguap.

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Buah masak.

 

6.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing.

Meniran

(Phyllanthus urinaria Linn.), Famili: Eurphorbiaceae

Meniran. Rebusan daun tanaman ini dicampur bahan lainnya dapat membantu menurunkan tensi.

 

 

 

 

1.      Nama

a.     Sinonim

Phyllanthus alatus Ibi.,

P. cantonensis Hornem.,

  P. echinatus Wall.,

P. lepidocarpus isieb.t Zucc.,

P. leprocarpus Wight.

 

b.    Nama daerah

Meniran merah, meniran (Sunda), meniran (Jawa), gosau ma dungi roriha (Ternate).

 

c.     Nama asing

Zhen zhu  cao.

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

Meniran banyak tumbuh liar pada tempat yang lembap dan berbatu seperti di tepi jalan, tanah terlantar, di antara rerumputan, tepi selokan, dan tempat-tempat lainnya sampai ketinggian 1.000 m dpl.

 

Tema semusim ini tumbuh tegak, tinggi sekitar 50 cm, bercabang terpencar, dan pangkalnya kadang agak berkayu.

 

Daun tunggal, letaknya berseling, bentuk bulat telur sampai bulat memanjang, bagian ujung tumpul atau runcing. Permukaan daun bagian bawah berbintik-bitik kelenjar. Batang berwarna hijau pucat (Phyllanthus nirun) atau hijau kemerahan (Phyllanthus urinaria). Dalam satu tanaman, terdapat bunga jantan yang keluar di bawah ketiak daun dan bunga betina yang keluar di atas ketiak daun. Buah bulat, licin, dengan garis tengah 2 – 2,5 mm.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Meniran bersifat agak asam, astringent, dan sejuk. Bermanfaat sebagai peluruh kecing (diuretik), peluruh dahak, peluruh haid, dan penurun panas.

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

Filantin, hipoflantin, kalium, damar, dan tanin.

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Daun atau seluruh tanaman.

6.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing.

 

Catatan:

Terlalu banyak (berlebihan) minum herba meniran dapat menyebabkan lemah syahwat (impotensi).

 

Mindi Kecil

(Melia azedarach L.), Famili: Meliaceae

Mindi kecil. Baik daun segar ataupun kering bermanfaat untuk pengobatan tekanan darah tinggi.

 

 

 

1.      Nama

a.     Sinonim

Melia azadirachta L.,

M. dubia auct. (non.Cav.) How et T.Chen.,

 

M. dubia Cav.,M. japonica G.Don.,M. toosendan Sieb.et Zucc

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: renceh, mindi kecil. Jawa: gringging, mindi, cakra-cikri.

c.     Nama asing

Ku lian pi, persian lilac, chinaberry-tree bark.

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

Mindi kecil berasal dari Cina. Tumbuhnya cepat, kerapkali ditanam di sisi jalan sebagai pohon pelindung, kadang liar di daerah dekat pantai, dan dapat ditemukan dari dataran rendah sampai pegunungan dengan ketinggian 1.100 m dpl.

 

Pohon ini banyak bercabang, tinggi 10 – 20 m, kulit batangnya berwarna cokelat tua. Daunnya berupa daun majemuk menyirip ganda yang tumbuh berseling dengan panjang 20 – 80 cm. Anak daun berbentuk bulat telur sampai lanset, tepi bergerigi, ujung meruncing, pangkal membulat atau tumpul. Daun permukaan bawah hijau muda, panjang 3 – 7 cm, lebar 1,5 – 3 cm. Bunganya tergolong bunga majemuk, tersusun dalam malai yang panjangnya 10 – 20 cm, keluar dari ketiak daun, memiliki lima daun mahkota, panjangnya sekitar 1 cm, warna ungu pucat, baunya harum. Buahnya termasuk buah batu, bulat, diameter sekitar 1,5 cm, warnanya cokelat kekuningan, dan berbiji satu.

 

Biji mindi kecil sangat beracun dan biasa dipakai untuk meracun ikan atau serangga. Daun yang dikeringkan di dalam buku dapat mengusir serangga atau kutu, sedangkan kulit akar dan kulit batangnya dapat digunakan sebagai obat cacing yang mujarab.

Perbanyakan dilakukan dengan biji.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Tanaman ini memiliki rasa manis, dingin, tetapi sedikit beracun (toksik). Bermanfaat sebagai obat cacing (anthelmintik), membersihkan panas dan lembap, laxative, dan meluruhkan kencing.

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

Kulit batang dan kulit akarnya mengandung toosendanin C₃₀H₃₈O₁₁ dan komponen yang larut berupa C₃₀H₃₈O₁₂. Selain itu terdapat margoside, kaempferol, resin, tanin, n-triacontane, b-sitosterol, dan triterpende kulinone. Biji mengandung resin yang sangat beracun.

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Daun segar ataupun kering.

6.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing.

 

Catatan:

Pada pengobatan yang sesuai anjuran toosendanin (zat berkhasiat pada mindi), jarang menimbulkan efek samping. Namun, kadang-kadang dapat menimbulkan gejala pening, muntah, nyeri perut, diare, kemerahan pada muka (flushing), dan mengantuk. Pada beberapa pasien, penglihatan menjadi kabur dan terase gatal-gatal. Gejala-gejala tersebut biasanya mengilang setelah 2 – 3 jam. Namun, pada beberapa pasien dapat lebih lama dari 1 hari lalu menghilang sendiri tanpa pengobatan khusus.

 

Pada dosis yang berlebihan akan menimbulkan gejala dengan rasa kebas pada anggota gerak (neuritis perifer), denyut jantung tidak teratur (arrhytmia), tekanan darah menurun (hypotension), dan sesak napas (dyspnea).

 

Hindarkan pemberian tanaman obat ini pada pasien dengan penyakit jantung yang berat, luka pada lambung (igastric ulcer), kurang darah (anemia), dan kondisi badan lemah.

 

Penderita dengan penyakit hati dan ginjal dilarang memakai obat ini karena dapat menyebabkan perlemakan hati (fatty degeneration) ginjal.

 

Patikan Kebo

(Euphorbia hirta L.), Famili: Euphorbiaceae

Patikan kebo. Selain darah tinggi beberapa penyakit lain dapat diobati dengan tanaman ini.

 

 

1. Nama

a.     Sinonim

Euphorbia piluifera var. hirta (L.) Thell.,

Capitata Wall.

 

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: daun biji kacang (Melayu). Jawa: gelang susu, gendong

 

anak (Jakarta), nanangkaan, nangkaan (Sunda), kukon-kukon, patikan, patikan jawa, patikan kebo (Jawa), kak-sekakan (Madura). Maluku: sosononga, lobi-lobi (Halmahera), isuma ibi (Ternate), dan isu gibi (Tidore).

 

c.     Nama asing

Da fei yang cao, spurge, mal-nommee, asthma herb.

 

1.      Uraian tanaman

Tanaman liar ini merupakan liar ini merupakan gulma, tumbuh di tempat terbuka sekitar pantai, padang rumput, pinggir jalan, atau kebun. Patikan kebo dapat ditemukan pada tanah yang tidak terlalu lembap. Tumbuh berpencar atau berkelompok. Terdapat  dari dataran rendah sampai ketinggian 1.400 m dpl.

 

Tema semusim yang berasal dari Amerika ini tingginya mencapai 50 cm. Batang berambut dengan percabangan yang keluar dari dekat pangkalnya. Tangkai tegak, melengkung, naik atua mendatar pada tanah, warnanya merah kecokelatan, bergetah warna putih bila diremuk. Daun bertangkai pendek, letak berhadapan, bentuknya jorong meruncing atau tumpul, panjang daun 5 – 50 mm, lebar 5 – 25 mm, tepi bergerigi, berambut jarang, warnanya hijau, kadang terdapat bercak berwarna ungu, daun permukaan bawah warnanya lebih pucat. Bunga berkumpul menjadi karangan bunga bertangkai pendek, berbentuk bola dengan diameter sekitar 1 cm, duduk di ketiak daun, warnanya hijau pucat atau merah kecokelatan. Biji sangat kecil dan berbulu.

 

Tangkai muda dan daunnya dapat dimakan mentah, dapat pula dikukus, atau dipepes dengan hati ayam. Di Eropa, tanaman ini terkenal karena digunakan untuk pengobatan penyakit asma, sehingga disebut asthma herb. Di Indonesia, terutama digunakan untuk pengobatan radang usus dan gangguan pencernaan seperti disentri basiler, disentri amuba, typhus abdominalis, diare, atau penyakit lain seperti abses paru, abses payudara, bronkhitis kronis, dan radang ginjal. Getahnya yang didapat dengan cara meremuk tumbuhan ini dipakai untuk menyembuhkan luka, koreng, eksim, atau kurap di kaki. Getah ini juga dapat diteteskan pada bercak putih di selaput bening mata tanpa terasa pedih.

Perbanyakan dengan biji.

 

2.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Rasa agak pahit dan asam, sejuk, sedikit beracun (toksik). Antiradang (antiinflamasi), peluruh kencing (diuretik), juga dapat menghilangkan gatal (antipruritus).

 

3.     Kandungan kimia

Myricyl alkohol, friedelin, b amyrin, b sitosterol, b eufol, euforbol, triterpenoid eufol, tirukalol, eufosterol, hentriacontane, flavonoid, serta tannin. Khusus bagian bunganya juga mengandung ellagic acid.

 

4.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Seluruh tanaman.

 

5.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing.

 

Catatan:

Pemakaian berlebihan  dapat menyebabkan gejala keracunan berupa diare. Pengobatan gejala keracunan tersebut dapat menggunakan bahan sebagai berikut: 9 g Glycyrrhiza uralensis (kayu manis) dan 12 g Lonicera macrantha D.C. direbus dengan satu setengah mangkuk air bersih sampai tersisa 1 mangkuk. Setelah dingin airnya disaring lalu diminum.

 

Pegagan

Pegagan. Daunnya berbentuk unik mirip ginjal dan berkembang biak melalui stolon yang merayap

(Centella asiatica (L.) Urban), Famili: Umbelliferae (Apiaceae)

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.      Nama

a.     Sinonim

Hydrocotyle asiatica L.,

Pesequinus Rumph.

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: pegaga, daun kaki kuda, daun penggaga, rumput kaki kuda, pegagan, kaki kuda, pegago, pugago. Jawa: cowet gompeng, antanan, antanan bener, antanan gede, gagan-gagan, ganggagan, kerok batok,  panegowang, panigowang, rendeng, calingan rambat, pacul gowang, gangagan. Sulawesi: pegaga, wisu-wisu, cipubalawo, kisu-kisu. Nusa Tenggara: bebele, paiduh, penggaga, kelai lere. Maluku: sarowati, kolotidi menora. Irian: dogauke, gogauke, sandanan.

 

c.     Nama asing

Ji xue cao, indian pennywort, indische waternavel, paardevoet.

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

Terna liar yang satu ini menyukai tanah agak lembap dan cukup mendapat sinar matahari atau teduh, seperti di padang rumput, pinggir selokan, atau sawah. Kadang-kadang ditanam sebagai penutup tanah di perkebunan atau sebagai tanaman sayur untuk lalap. Tanaman yang terdapat di seluruh Indonesia ini berasal dari Asia tropik dan dapat ditemukan sampai ketinggian 2.500 m dpl.

 

Pegagan merupakan tema menahun tanpa batang tetapi memiliki rimpang pendek dan stolon-stolon yang merayap, panjangnya 10 – 80 cm, akar keluar dari setiap bonggol, dan banyak bercabang. Cabang ini dapat membentuk tumbuhan baru. Daun tunggal berbentuk ginjal, bertangkai panjang sekitar 5 – 15 cm, letaknya tersusun dalam roset akar, berkumpul 2 – 10 helai daun. Bunga berwarna putih atau merah muda, bertangkai, tersusun dalam karangan berupa payung, tunggal atau 3 – 5 bunga bersama-sama keluar dari ketiak daun. Buah kecil bergantung, bentuknya lonjong atau pipih, panjang 2 – 2,5 mm, baunya wangi, tetapi rasanya pahit.

Perbanyakan dengan pemisahan tumbuhan baru.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Rasa manis dan sejuk. Berguna sebagai anti-infeksi, antitoksik, penurun panas, dan peluruh kencing.

 

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

Asiaticoside, thankuniside, isothankuniside, madecassoside, brahmoside, brahmic acid, madasiatic acid, meso-inositol, centellose, carotenoids, garam-garam mineral seerti garam kalium, natrium, magnesium, kalsium, besi, vellarine, dan zat semak.

Senyawa glikosida triterpenoida yang disebut asiaticoside dan senyawa sejenis mempunyai khasiat antilepra (morbus hansen).

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Daun.

6.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kecing.

 

Catatan :

Lalapan pegagang segar berkhasiat membersihkan darah, terutama pada bisul, atau tukak berdarah, juga memperbanyak pengeluaran empedu sehingga mampu memperbaiki gangguan pencernaan.

 

Pepaya

(Carica papaya L.), Famili: Caricaceae

Pepaya. Dapat ditanam di pekarangan sebagai tanaman buah atau obat tradisional

 

 

1.      Nama

a.     Sinonim

 

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: kabaelo, peuta, partek, pastelo, ralempaya, betik, embetik, botik, bala, si kailo, kates, kepaya,

kustela, pepaya, sangsile, batiek, kalikih, pancene, pisang katuka, p. patuka, p. pelo, gedang, punti kayu. Jawa: gedang, katela gantung, kates, ghedhang. Kalimantan: bua medung, pisang malaka, buah dong, majan, pisang mantela, gadang, bandas, manjan, badas. Nusa Tenggara: gedang, kates, kampaja, kalujawa, padu, kaut, panja, kalailu, paja, kapala, hango, muu jawa, muku jawa, kasi. Sulawei: kapalay, pepaya, kaliki, sumoyori, unti jawa, tangan-tangan nikanre, kalihi ninkare, kaliki rianre. Maluku: tele, pelaki, papae, papaino, papau, papaen, papai, papaya, sempain, tapaya, kapaya. Irian: sampain, aswawa, menam, siberiani, tapaya.

 

c.     Nama asing

Fan mu gua, papaw tree, papaya, papayer, melonenbaum.

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

Pepaya berasal dari Amerika Tengah. Tanaman buah menahun ini tumbuh pada tanah lembap yang subur dan tidak tergenang air, dapat ditemukan di dataran rendah sampai ketinggian 1.000 m dpl.

 

Sesungguhnya tanaman pepaya merupakan semak yang berbentuk pohon, bergetah, tumbuh tegak, tinggi 2,5 – 10 m, batangnya bulat berongga, tangkai di bagian atas kadang dapat bercabang. Pada kulit batang terdapat tanda bekas tangkai daun yang telah lepas.

 

Daun berkumpul di ujung batang dan ujung percabangan, tangkainya bulat silindris, berongga, panjang 25 – 100 cm. Helaian daun bulat telur dengan diameter 25 – 75 cm, berbagi menjari, ujung runcing, pangkal berbentuk jantung, warna permukaan atas hijau tua, permukaan bawah warnanya hijau muda, tulang daun menonjol di permukaan bawah. Cuping-cuiping daun berlekuk sampai berbagi tidak beraturan, tulang cuping daun menyirip. Bunga jantan berkumpul dalam tandan, mahkota berbentuk terompet, warnanya putih kekuningan. Buahnya buah buni yang bisa bermacam-macam bentuk, warna, maupun rasa daging buahnya. Bijinya banyak dan berwarna hitam.

 

Tanaman ini dapat berbuah sepanjang tahun dimulai pada umur 6 – 7 bulan dan mulai berkurang setelah berumur 4 tahun. Buah, bunga, daun muda, dan batang muda dapat dimakan. Buah muda disayur, yang mengkal  dirujak atau dibuat manisan, yang masak dimakan sebagai buah segar. Daun muda disayur, direbus, atau dikukus sebagai lalap matang atau campuran pecel. Daun mentah yang diremas-remas dapat dipakai untuk membungkus daging sehingga waktu rebus tidak terlalu lama dan daging menjadi lebih empuk.

Perbanyakan dengan biji.

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Pepaya bersifat manis dan netral. Akar berguna sebagai peluruh kencing (diuretik), obat cacing, penguat lambung, serta perangsang kulit. Biji dapat dipakai untuk obat cacing dan peluruh haid. Buah matang dapat memacu enzim pencernaan, peluruh empedu (cholagogue), menguatkan lambung (stomakik), dan antiscorbut. Buah mengkal bermanfaat sebagai pencahar ringan (laxative), peluruh kencing, pelancar keluarnya ASI (galaktagog), dan abortivum. Daun dapat menambah nafsu makan, meluruhkan haid, dan menghilangkan sakit (anagetik).

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

a)     Daun: enzym papain, alkaloid karpaina, pseudo-karpaina, glikosid, karposid dan saponin, dekstrosa, dan levulosa. Alkaloid karpaina mempunyai efek seperti digitalis.

b)    Buah: b-karotena, pectin, d-galaktosa, l-arabinosa, papain, papayotimin papain, serta fitokinase.

c)     Biji: glucoside cacirin dan karpain. Glucoside cacirin berkhasiat sebagai obat cacing, peluruh haid (emenagog), serta peluruh kentut (karminatif).

d)    Getah: papain, kemokapain, lisosim, lipase, glutamin, dan siklotransferase.

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Akar dan buah mengkal.

6.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing.

 

Catatan:

Wanita hamil dilarang menggunakan biji dan juice pepaya muda.

 

Pule Pandak

(Rauvolfia Serpentina (L.) Bentham ex Kurz.), Famili : Apocynaceae

Pule pandak. Perdu tegak ini dapat diambil akarnya untuk mengobati tekanan darah tinggi

1. Nama

a.     Sinonim

Ophioxylon obversum Miq.,O.serpentinum Linn.,O.trifoliatum Gaertn

b.    Nama daerah

Akar tikus, pulai pandak

c.     Nama asing

Yin tu luo fu mu.

 

1.      Uraian tanaman

Perdu tegak ini

tingginya mencapai 1 m. batang silindris, percabangan berwarna cokelat abu-abu, bila dipatahkan mengandung getah berupa cairan jernih. Tanaman ini kadang ditanam di pekarangan rumah sebagai tanaman hias, tetapi lebih sering tumbuh liar di ladang, hutan jati, atau tempat-tempat lain sampai setinggi 1.000 m dpl.

 

Daun tunggal, duduk berkarang atau berhadapan bersilang, bentuk taji atau bulat telur memanjang, ujung runcing, pangkal menyempit menjadi tangkai pendek, tepi rata, tulang daun menyirip, panjang 4 – 14 cm, lebar 1 – 4 cm, permukaan atas hijau, permukaan bawah hijau muda. Bunganya bunga majemuk, mahkota bunga putih atau dadu, berkumpul berbentuk payung, keluar dari ketiak daun atau ujung percabangan. Buahnya berbiji satu, bulat lonjong, bila masak warnanya hitam.

 

Akar keringnya disebut Rauwolfia serpentina yang di Indoia digunakan untuk pengobatan berbagai macam penyakit dari gigitan ular sampai penyakit gangguan jiwa (psikosa). Herba ini mempunyai khasiat yang sama dengan Ruvolfia verticillata (Lour) Baill.

 

 

2.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Akar pule pandak terasa pahit, dingin, dan sedikit beracun. Bermanfaat sebagai penenang (itransquilizer), menurunkan tekanan darah (antihipertensi), melancarkan sirkulasi, menghilangkan sakit, menurunkan panas, menghilangkan panas dalam dan panas lever, juga sebagai antiradang. Batang dan daun terasa pahit, manis, dan sejuk. Dapat digunakan untuk menolak angin, menurunkan tekanan darah, dan melancarkan darah beku.

 

3.     Kandungan kimia

Akar mengandung 3 grup alkaloid, yang jenis dan jumlahnya tergantung dari daerah asal tumbuhnya. Grup I termasuk alkaline kuat querterary ammonium compound serpentine, sepentinine, sarpagine, dan samatine. Penyerapannya jelek bila digunakan perosal (masuk melalui mulut). Grup II termasuk tertiary amine derivate yohimbine, ajmalicine, tetraphylline, dan tetraphyllicine. Group II termasuk alkaline lemah secondary amines reserpine, rescinnambine, deserpidine, raunesine, dan canescine.

 

4.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Akar.

 

5.     Cara kerja

Termasuk golongan obat simpatikolitik. Efeknya langsung pada hypothalamus dan saraf simpatis parifer

 

Catatan:

Pada pemakaian pule pandak jarang terjadi efek samping yang berat. Yang sering telrihat adalah sedasi (mengantuk/tenang) beserta hidung tersumbat (kongesti nasal). Bertambahnya nafsu makan, mimpi buruk, dan keadaan depresi juga sering terjadi. Gejala penekanan sentral menimbulkan sakit kepala, mimpi buruk, rasa lelah, dan tidur tidak nyenyak. Gejala pada jantung dan pembuluh darah menimbulkan denyut jantung melambat, rasa hidung tersumbat, dan kemungkinan gagal jantung meskipun jarang. Gangguan sistem pencernaan antara lain mulut kering, kontraksi lambung dan usus meningkat, serta sering buang air besar lunak atau cair. Herba ini meningkatkan sekresi asam lambung dan dapat menimbulkan perdarahan lambung. Dilarang (ulcus pepticum) dan gangguan jiwa depresi. Tanaman inipun sudah dibuat tablet.

 

Saga

(Abrus precatorius L.), Famili Papilionaceae (Leguminosae)

 

Saga. Pemakaiannya perlu berhati-hati karena bijinya sangat beracun

1. Nama

a.     Sinonim

A. frutex Rumph.

 

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: thaga, seugeun, saga, hasobe, parusa, akar belimbing, akar saga betina, saga betina, saga biji, saga kendiri, kendiri kundi,

saga buncik, saga letek, sao betino, kanderi, kunderi. Jawa: saga areuy, saga leutik, saga cai, saga telik, saga manis, ghak-saghakan lakek. Kalimantan: saga, taning bajang. Nusa Tenggara: maat metan, piling-piling. Sulawesi; walipopo, punu no matiti, saga, kaca. Maluku: war kamasin, war kamsan, malimali, aliwensi, pikalo, kaitasi, pikal, ailalu picar, seklawan, idisi ma lako, idi-idi ma lako, punci, tatampunei, tampunei. Irian ; kelepip.

 

c.     Nama asing

Xiang si ji, koraalerwt, paternosterboonetjes, wees-of weegboontjes (Belanda), indian liquorice, crab’s eyes, chinese red beans, bead tree (Inggris), chanoti gunchi (India).

 

1.      Uraian tanaman

Saga dapat ditemukan pada daerah tropis dan subtropis, tumbuh liar di hutan, berupa belukar liar atau ditanam di pekarangan sebagai tanaman obat. Tanaman yang asalnya mungkin dari Asia atau Afrika ini dapat tumbuh di daerah kering pada tempat-tempat yang sedikit terlindung dan ditemukan dari 1 – 1.000 m dpl.

 

Perdu memanjat dan membelit pada pagar atau tanaman lain. Pokok batangnya kecil, berkayu, tinggi mencapai 2 – 5 m. daunnya merupakan daun majemuk menyurup yang tumbuh berseling, panjang 4 – 11 cm. Anak daun 8 – 17 pasang, bertangkai pendek, bentuknya jorong melebar atau bundar telur, panjang 5 – 20 mm, lebar 3 – 8 mm, ujung dan pangkalnya tumpul agak membundar, warnanya hijau sampai hijau pucat, permukaan atas licin, permukaan bawah berambut halus, tulang daun menonjol di permuakaan bawah. Bunga kecil-kecil dengan mahkota berbentuk kupu-kupu, warnanya ungu muda, tumbuh berkumpul dalam tandan yang keluar dari ketiak daun. Buahnya buah polong berwarna hijau kuning, berbentuk pipih persegi empat memanjang, panjang 2 – 5 cm, lebar 1,2 – 1,4 cm, bila masak menjadi kering berwarna hitaum dan pecah sendiri. Polong berisi 3 – 6 butir biji dengan bentuk bulat lonjong, panjang 5 – 9 mm, keras, warnanya merah mengkilap berbercak hitam di sekitar hilum yang berwarna putih.

 

Bijinya yang sering disebut kacang patern oster biasa dibuat manik-manik, kalung, dan hiasan lainnya karena bentuknya yang menarik. Biji ini ternyata sangat beracun dan dapat mematikan. Daunnya berkhasiat sebagai obat sariawan, batuk, radang tenggorokan, hepatitis, dan kencing terasa panas.

Perbanyakan dengan biji.

 

2.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Biji terasa pedas, pahit, netral, dan sangat beracun. Dapat membunuh parasit (parasiticide0, antiradang, serta melancarkan pengeluarkan nanah. Tidak dianjurkan untuk pemakaian dalam. Akar, batang, dan daun sifatnya manis dan netral. Berguna untuk membersihkan panas, antiradang, dan peluruh kencing. Akar berguna sebagai perangsang muntah (emetikum) dan daun sebagai penyejuk pada kulit dan selaput lendir (demulcent).

 

3.     Kandungan kimia

a)     Biji mengandung: abrine, abraline, L (+)-hypaphorine, precatorine, choline, trigonelline, swualene, beta-amyrin, abrussic acid, dan asam gallat. abrine (jequiritin) merupakan suatu albumin tumbuhan. Senyawa ini sangat beracun (toksik), larut dalam larutan natrium klorida, mempunyai titik lebur 295^oC dan dapat menghambat pertumbuhan ehrlich asciatic tumor pada mencit.

b)    Akar, batang, dan daun mengandung glycyrrhizic acid.

 

4.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Daun.

 

5.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing.

 

Catatan:

Biji saga mengandung beberapa macam protein yang sangat beracun. Biasanya dosis 0,5 mg sudah menyebabkan keracunan. Gejala keracunan biji: nafsu makan berkurang, mual, muntah, sakit perut, mencret, susah bernafas, kulit kebiruan, sirkulasi darah menurun, kencing sedikit, akhirnya terjadi hemolisis, kencing berdarah, atau mati karena susah bernafas. Bila segera diketahui maka usahakan penderita muntah, cuci perut, dan beri soda 5-15 g. Pengobatannya dengan memberikan 10 g Glycyrrhiza uralensis dan 2 g Lonicera japonica direbus dengan 2 mangkuk air sampai tersisa 1 mangkuk, lalu diminum.

 

Sambiloto

(Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.,) Nees), Famili : Acanthaceae

Sambiloto. Daun dan batangnya memiliki rasa yang sangat pahit.

 

 

1.      Nama

a.     Sinonim

Justicia stricta Lamk.,

J. paniculata Burm.,

J. latebrosa Russ.

 

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: papaitan. Jawa: ki oray, ki peurat, ki ular, takilo (sunda), bidara, sadilata, sambilata, takila (Jawa).

 

c.     Nama asing

Chuan xin lien, common andrographis herb.

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

Sambiloto tumbuh liar di tempat-tempat terbuka seperti pinggir jalan, ladang, tanah kosong yang tanahnya agak lembap, atau ditanam di pekarangan sebagai tanaman obat. Tanaman ini mudah berkembang biak dan banyak terdapat dari dataran rendah sampai 700 m dpl. Daun dan batang tanaman rasanya sangat pahit.

 

Tema semusim ini tumbuh tegak, tinggi 40 – 90 cm. Batang persegi empat dengan nodus yang membesar dan banyak bercabang. Daun tunggal, bertangkai pendek, eltak berhadapan bersilang, bentuknya lanset, ujung dan pangkal meruncing, tepi rata, permukaan atas berwarna hijau tua, permukaan bawah warnanya lebih muda, panjang 2 – 8 cm, lebar 1 – 3 cm. Bunga tersusun dalam rangkaian berupa tandan, keluar dari ujung batang atau ketiak daun, warnanya putih ungu. Buah berbentuk memanjang sampai jorong dengan panjang sekitar 1,5 cm, lebar 0,5 cm, pangkal dan ujungnya tajam, bila masak akan pecah membujur menjadi 4 keping. Bijinya pipih, kecil, berwarna cokelat muda.

Herba ini diyakini penduduk sebagai obat mujarab terhadap gigitan ular berbisa dan serangga, selain itu berguna untuk pengobatan penyakit kencing manis dan demam, serta berbagai penyakit lainnya.

Perbanyakan dengan biji.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Sambiloto memiliki rasa pahit dan dingin. Masuk ke meridian jantung dan paru-paru. Bermanfaat untuk menurunkan panas, menghilang panas dalam, menawarkan racun, menghilangkan sakit, antiradang, serta menghilangkan bengkak (antiswlling). Herba ini merusak sel trophocyt dan trophoblast, berperan pada kondensasi cytoplasme dari sel tumor, pyknosis, dan menghancurkan inti sel.

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

Herba ini mengandung laktone dan flavonoid. Laktone yang diisolasi dari daun dan percabangannya yaitu deoxyandro-grapholoide, andrographolide (zat pahit), neoandrographilide, 14-deoxy-11, 12-didehydroandrographolide, dan homoandrographolide. Selain itu terdapat flavonoid, alkane, ketone, danaldehyde selain mineral seperti kalium, kalsium, natrium, dan asam kersik. Flavonoid diisolasi terbanyak dari kar yaitu polymethoxflavone, andrographi, panicolin, mono-o-methylwithin, dan apigenin-7-4-dimethyl ether.

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Daun

6.     Cara kerja

Kemungkinan mempengaruhi meridian jantung.

 

Catatan:

Herba ini efektif untuk pengobatan penyakit infeksi dengan merangsang phagocytosis (daya tahan seluler). Sambiloto pun sudah dibuat tablet dan obat suntik.

 

Semanggi Gunung

Semanggi gunung. Biasa dimakan sebagai asinan, direbus, atau sebagai lalap mentah.

(Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.), Famili: Umbelliferae (Apiaceae)

 

1.      Nama

a.     Sinonim

H. formosana Masamune, H. hirsuta BI., H. latisecta Zoll.,H. puncticulata Miq., ranunculoides Linn. var. incisa BI.,H. rotundifolia Roxb., H. splendens BI., H. zollingeri Molk.

 

b.    Nama daerah

Pegagan embun, antanan beurit, a. lembut, a. tikus, kurawet galeng (Sunda), andem, katepan, patikan cina, patikim, penjelangan, rendeng, semanggi gunung (Jawa), take cena (Madura), seatun, tekim, tikim (Melayu).

 

c.     Nama asing

Tian hu sui, asiatic pennywort.

2.     Uraian tanaman

Tema liar ini dapat tumbuh subur di tempat lembap yang terbuka maupun teduh seperti di tanah pertanian, lapangan rumput, tepi sungai, kebun, dan tempat-tempat lainnya. Kadang-kadang dibudidayakan sebagai tanaman sayur dan dapat ditemukan dari dataran rendah sampai 2.500 m dpl.

 

Semanggi gunung tumbuh merayap, berbatang lunak, berongga, panjangnya 45 cm atau lebih. Daun tunggal, bertangkai panjang, letak berseling atau tersebar, bentuknya bulat atau ginjal (reniform), tepi berbagi menjadi 5-7 lekukan dangkal, diameter 05-2,5 cm, warnanya hijau. Bunga majemuk berbentuk bonggol, berwarna kuning, duduk atau bertangkai pendek keluar dari ketiak daun. Buah berukuran kecil, warna merah muda kuning atau merah muda, dan berusuk. Daun berbau khas, biasa dimakan sebagai asinan sayur, direbus, atau sebagai lalap mentah.

 

Sebagai tanaman obat semanggi gunung digunakan untuk pengobatan sakit kuning, batu dan infeksi saluran kencing, batu empedu, batuk dan sesak napas karena asma, sariawan, radang tenggorok, infeksi amandel, infeksi telinga tengah ataupun liver cirrhosis dan ascites. Tumbuhan segar yang dilumatkan digunakan sebagai tapel pada bisul, bekuan darah di bawah kulit, radang pinggir kuku (paronyshia), ataupun koreng di kepala.

Perbanyakan dengan pemisahan sebagian tanaman.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Rasa manis sedikit pedas, tetapi sejuk. Mampu menghilangkan bengkak (antiswelling), antiradang, antibiotik, menurunkan panas, menegralisir racun (detoksifikan), meluruhkan kencing, serta meluruhkan dahak (ekspektoran).

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

Semanggi gunung mengandung minyak menguap, coumarin, dan hyperin.

 

 

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Seluruh tanaman.

 

6.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing.

 

Catatan:

Walauun jarang, selama pemakaian semanggi gunung dapat terjadi penurunan jumlah sel darah putih (leucopenia) yang segera kembali normal bila pemakaian obat dihentikan.

 

Tapak Dara

(Catharanthus roseus (L) G. Don.), Famili: Apocynacaea

Tapak dara. Bunganya cukup indah, berwarna putih atau ungu muda.

 

 

1.      Nama

a.     Sinonim

Ammocallis rosea Small.,

Lochnera rosea Reich.,

Vinca rosea L.

 

b.    Nama daerah

Sumatera: rutu-rutu, rumput jalang. Jawa: kembang sari cina, kembang serdadu, kembang tembaga, paku rane, tapak doro,

cakar ayam, tai lantun. Sulawesi: sindapor. Maluku: usia.

 

c.     Nama asing

Chang chun hua, indonesische maagdepalm, madagascar periwinkle herb, soldatenbloem, vinca.

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

Tapak dara yang berasal dari Madagaskar ini, umumnya ditanam sebagai tanaman hias dan dapat ditemukan dari dataran rendah sampai ketinggian 800 m dpl. Dapat tumbuh pada bermacam-macam iklim serta tumbuh baik di tempat terbuka maupun terlindung.

 

Tanaman semak menahun ini tumbuh tegak, tinggi mencapai 120 cm, dan mengandung getah. Batangnya bulat, pangkal berkayu, warnanya merah tengguli, berambut halus, banyak bercabang. Daun tunggal, agak tebal, bertangkai pendek, letaknya berhadapan bersilang, bentuknya bulat telur sampai memanjang, runcing, pangkal meruncing, kedua permukaan daun berambut halus, panjang 2-6cm, lebar 1-3 cm. Bunga majemuk, keluar dari ujung tangkai dengan 5 helai daun mahkota berbentuk seperti terompet, warnanya putih, ungu muda, atau putih dengan warna merah di tengahnya. Buahnya buah bumbung berbulu, berisi banyak biji berwarna hitam, dan menggantung pada batang.

 

Herba ini digunakan untuk pengobatan kanker darah (leukemia), kanker kelenjar limfe seperti hodgkin’s disease dan lymphosarcoma, tekanan darah tinggi, kencing manis, dan beberapa penyakit lainnya.

Perbanyakan dengan biji, setek batang, atau akar.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Sedikit pahit, sejuk, tetapi beracun (toksik). Dapat digunakan sebagai antikanker, menurunkan tekanan darah tinggi (hipotensif), menenangkan, menyejukan darah, dan menghentikan pendarahan.

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

Pada akar, batang, daun, dan biji ditemukan lebih dari 70 macam alkaloid, termasuk 28 bi-indole alkaloid. Komponen antikanker yaitu alkaloid seperti vinblastine (VLB), vincristine (VCR), leurosidine, dan catharanthine. Alkaloid berefek hypoglycemic (menurunkan kadar gula darah) antara lain leurosine, catharanthine, lochnerine, tetrahydroalstonine, vindoline, dan vindoliniene.

 

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Daun atau seluruh tanaman.

 

 

 

 

6.     Cara kerja

Tidak diketahui, tetapi mempunyai khasiat menurunkan tekanan darah.

 

Catatan :

Tapak dara mengandung komponen aktif vinblastine dan leurocristine (vincristine) yang berkhasiat antikanker pada leukemia 1534, leukimia 1210, AKR leukimia, ehrlich ascitic liver carcinoma, dan walker carcinoma 256. Komponen ini menghentikan mitosis sel kanker pada metaphase. Vinblastine terutama dipakai untuk pengobatan hodgkin’s disease dan chorioepithelioma, tetapi juga efektif pada sejumlah pasien dengan kanker payudara, kanker indung telur (ovarium), dan nephroblastoma. Vincristine lebih efektif pada acute lymphocytic dan granulocytic leukemia, terutama pada acute leukemia pada anak-anak (lymphocytic dan myelocytic). Tanaman ini sudah ada obat patennya yakni vincristine injeksi dan vinblastine injeksi.

 

 

A.   Tempuyung

(Sanchus arvensis L.), Famili: Compositee (Asteraceae)

Tempuyung. Meskipun bermanfaat untuk tekanan darah tinggi, tetapi lebih terkenal sebagai  penghancur batu saluran kencing dan batu empedu

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.      Nama

a.     Sinonim

–

b.    Nama daerah

Galibug, jombang,

 j. lalakina, lempung,

lampenas, rayana (Sunda).

 

c.     Nama asing

Niu she tou, akkermlkdistel, laitron des champs, com sow thistle, ackersaudistel.

 

2.     Uraian tanaman

Tempuyung merupakan tanaman liar, tumbuh di tempat terbuka yang terkena sinar matahari atau sedikit terlindung, seperti di tebing-tebing, tepi saluran air, pinggir jalan, atau lapangan berumput. Dapat ditemukan pada ketinggian 50 -1.650 m dpl.

 

Tema menahun yang tumbuh tegak ini tingginya 0,6 – 2 m, mengandung getah putih, pahit, dengan akar tunggang yang kuat. Batangnya bulat, berongga, dan berusuk. Daun tunggal, bentuknya lonjong atau lanset dengan panjang 6 – 48 cm, lebar 3 – 12 cm, berbagi menyirip tidak teratur, berkumpul pada pangkal membentuk roset akar. Daun bagian atas lebih kecil dengan pangkal berbentuk jantung memeluk batang, duduknya berjauhan berseling. Bunganya bunga majemuk berbentuk bonggol, bertongkol, bertangkai, warnanya kuning cerah, tetapi lama-kelamaan berwarna merah kecokelatan. Buahnya keras, bentuknya memanjang sekitar 4 mm, pipih, warnanya cokelat kekuningan.

 

Tanaman ini berasal dari Eurasia. Batang muda dan daunnya terasa agak pahit, tetapi biasa dimakan sebagai lalap. Terdapat sedikit keanekaragaman pada tanaman ini, dimana yang berdaun kecil disebut lempung dan yang berdaun besar dengan tinggi batang sampai 2 m disebut rayana.

Perbanyakan dengan biji.

 

3.     Sifat kimiawi dan efek farmakologis

Tempuyung memiliki rasa yang pahit dan dingin. Dapat menghilangkan panas dan racun, meluruhkan kencing (diuretik0, serta menghancurkan batu saluran kencing dan batu empedu.

 

4.     Kandungan kimia

a-lactucerol, b-lactucerol, manitol, inositol, silika, kalium, flavonoid, atau taraksasterol.

5.     Bagian yang digunakan untuk obat darah tinggi

Daun segar.

6.     Cara kerja

Sebagai peluruh kencing.

 

 

 

Penyakit TBC

 

Pengertian Penyakit TBC

 

Dewasa ini sering terdengar bahwa penyakit TBC sudah menyebar dan perlu segera ditanggulangi. Terlepas dari benar tidaknya berita tersebut, pada kenyataannya banyak penderita TBC yang dirawat di rumah sakit.

 

Disadari atau tidak, penyakit TBC disebabkan oleh kurangnya pengetahuan masyarakat tentang gejala penyakit TBC, juga akibat dari proses penyampaian tentang penyakit TBC dan penanggulangan penyakit ini kurang menarik bagi masyarakat umum.

 

Adanya pengarahan dan penyuluhan tentang penyakit TBC diharapkan dapat mendorong masyarakat untuk berbuat atau bertindak lebih jauh, bukan sekedar mengetahui gejala dasar tentang penyakit ini tetapi juga dapat menanggulangi penyakit ini tetapi dapat menanggulangi penyakit ini secara cepat dan tepat. Dengan demikian, dapat menumbuhkan pengertian, pengetahuan dan tindakan yang baik terhadap penyakit TBC.

 

Dengan demikian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa latar belakang penelitian ini adalah: kurangnya pengetahuan masyarakat tentang penyakit TBC, sulitnya mengetahui gejala dasar dari penyakit TBC yang diderita oleh para penderita TBC, dan kurangnya cara penanggulangan penyakit ini dari masyarakat.

 

Penyakit TBC paru-paru ditularkan melalui percikan dahak atau batuk penderita TBC. Apabila kita mendengar penyakit TBC, maka bayangan yang ada dibenak kita adalah penyakit menular yang menyerang organ paru-paru.

 

Penyakit TBC bisa juga menyerang organ selain paru-paru seperti sendi, perut, tulang, dan selaput otak. Gejala dasar yang terjadi pada penderita TBC yaitu sebagai berikut:

 

1. Penderita TBC ditandai dengan batuk kronis yang tidak mau sembuh, badan tambah kurus, berkeringat dipagi hari, dan mungkin sampai batuk darah.

2.   Panas subferil (panas yang sedang-sedang saja).

3.   Perasaan mudah lelah dan nafsu makan menurun drastis.

4.   Gejala dasar TBC tampak pada keluhan batuk dan sesak nafas.

 

Pencegahan/meredakan penyakit TBC adalah sebagai berikut:

1.     Melakukan imunisasi BCG.

2.     Menghindari penderita TBC, ketika sedang batuk.

3.     Segera berobat kedokter kalau batuk semakin parah.

 

Catatan Khusus:

 

–         Pengobatan dengan ramuan tradisional ini tidak dapat melebihi pengobatan modern, tapi dapat mendukung penyembuhan penyakit TBC.

–         Bayi berumur 3 bulan ke atas sebaiknya diberikan suntikan imunisasi BCG, untuk mencegah penyakit TBC.

–         Apabila gejala TBC tidak dapat diatasi, bahkan bertambah berat, dan sering kambuh, harus secepatnya berobat ke puskesmas/ dokter.

 

Macam Ramuan Tradisional yang dapat digunakan Untuk Pengobatan Penyakit TBC

a. Ramuan 1

Bahan:

Lempuyang wangi : 1 genggam

Air bersih              : 5 gelas

Pembuatan:

Akar lempuyang wangi di cuci bersih dan dipotong-potong lalu direbus dengan air bersih hingga tinggal setengahnya. Didinginkan dan disaring.

 

Pemakaian:

Diminum 2 kali sehari ¾ gelas.

(Pengobatan khusus untuk menambah darah)

 

b. Ramuan 2

Bahan:

Daun kaki kuda     : 1 genggam

Daun kapuk randu          : 7 helai

Gula batu               : 1 cangkir

Pembuatan :

Daun kaki kuda dan daun kapuk randu di tumbuk dengan menggunakan sedikit air matang. Setelah halus ditambah air matang lagi dan disaring, lalu tambahkan dengan gula batu, aduk sampai larut.

Pemakaian :

Diminum 1 kali sehari pada pagi hari dan sebelum makan.

 

c. Ramuan 3

Bahan :

Bunga kembang sepatu  : 3 kuntum

Air masak                        : ½ gelas

Madu                               : secukupnya

Pembuatan :

Bunga sepatu digiling halus lalu dicampurkan dengan air masak dan madu secukupnya. Selanjutnya di peras dan disaring.

Pemakaian :

Diminum 3 kali sehari

(pengobatan ini untuk melancarkan dahak)

 

d. Ramuan 4

Bahan :

Bawang putih        : 2 – 4 butir

Pembuatan :

Bawang putih dicuci bersih

Pemakaian:

Bawang putih dikunyah dan airnya ditelan

(pengobatan ini untuk menambah daya tahan tubuh dan daya penyembuhan)

e.    Ramuan 5

   Bahan :

Daun sambiloto segar : 1 genggam

Madu                      : secukupnya

Pembuatan:

Daun sambiloto dikeringkan, lalu digiling halus hingga menjadi bubuk, setelah itu ditambahkan sedikit madu dan dibuat bulatan-bulatan pil berdiameter sekitar 0,5 cm.

Pemakaian :

Diminum dengan air matang 2 – 3 kali sehari. Sekali minum dapat 15 – 30 pil.

 

 

 

Macam Tumbuhan Obat yang dapat digunakan untuk Pengobatan Penyakit TBC

 

 Bawang Putih

Nama Tanaman

a.     Nama Daerah

Sumatera lasun, bawang mentar, lasuna, bawang bodas (sunda), bawang (Jawa), Bhahang Poti (Madura)

b.     Kandungan Asing

Knof look, Ail commum, Knoblauch, Garlic.

c.       Nama Latin

Allium sativum L.

 

Kandungan Kimia

Umbi bawang putih mengandung senyawa allicin, alliin, gurwitchrays, anti hemolytic factor, antiarthritic factor, sugar regulating factor, allithiamine, selenium, germanium antitoksin, scordinin, dan methylallytrisulfide.

 

Khasiat Tanaman

1.  Untuk obat asma, dan TBC.

2.  Untuk obat batuk.

3.  Untuk obat darah tinggi

4.  Untuk obat cacing

 

Pedoman Penanaman

a.     Pengolahan Tanah

–      Buatkan selokan dengan lebar 30 cm – 40 cm, dalam 30 cm – 60 cm, tanah galian digunakan untuk bedengan selebar 60 cm – 100 cm, panjang bedengan disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan, lalu dicangkul sedalam 15 cm – 30 cm.

–      Setelah 10 – 15 hari, bedengan tersebut dicangkul kembali, hingga membentuk gumpalan halus kemudian diberi pupuk kandang 10 ton – 15 ton/hektar.

–      Sehari sebelum ditanam, bedengan di basahi dengan air.

b.    Persiapan bibit

–      Bibit  berasal dari tanaman yang cukup tua (85 hari –135 hari), sehat, dan tidak cacat.

–      Bibit disimpan dalam ruangan yang kering sekitar 6 – 8 bulan dengan cara digantung pada para-para.

–      Siung bawang untuk bibit berasal dari umbi yang beratnya 5gram – 7,5 gram/umbi.

c.     Penanaman

–      Buatkan lubang tanam sedalam 3 cm x 4 cm dengan tugal.

–      Tancapkan bibit dengan posisi tegak lurus dan ujung siung di atas yang ¾ bagian siungnya tertanam dalam tanah.

–      Taburkan tanah halus dan tutup merata dengan jerami setebal 3 cm.

–      Jarak tanam 10 cm x 10 cm atau 15 cm x 10 cm

Daun Kaki Kuda

Nama Daerah

a.     Nama Daerah

Antanan gerde (Sunda), kostekosan (Madura), pagaga (Makasar), daun tungke (Bugis).

b.     Nama Asing

Indische waternavel, paardepaet, india pennywart.

c.     Nama Latin

Centella asiatica cijurb.

Sinonim      : hydracotyle asiatica L.

 

Kandungan Kimia

Daun kaki kuda mengandung senyawa glikotida triterpenoida, alkaloid, hidrakatilin, steroid, tanan, minyak atsiri, gula pereduksi, dan garam-garam mineral seperti: garam Kalium, Natrium, Magnesium, Kalsium, dan Besi.

 

Khasiat Tanaman

1.  Untuk obat asma.

2.  Untuk obat Batuk / TBC.

3.  Untuk obat kurang ASI / Pelancar ASI.

4.  Untuk obat kurang gizi.

5.  Untuk obat radang usus.

6.  Untuk obat luka.

 

Pedoman Penanaman

a.     Tanaman kaki kuda umumnya dikenal sebagai tumbuhan liar, tanaman ini dapat diperbanyak dengan stek batang.

b.    Buat lubang tanam berukuran 25 cm x 25 cm x 25 cm.

c.     Stek bibit ditanam pada lubang yang telah disediakan dengan jarak tanam 1 m x 1 m.

d.    Batangnya tumbuh merayap/menghasilkan cabang yang membentuk tanaman baru, hingga tanaman ini membentuk rumpun yang menutupi tanah.

 

Kembang Sepatu

Nama Tanaman

a.     Nama Daerah

Bugong raja (Aceh), Soma-soma (Nias), Kembang wara (Sunda), Wora-wari (Jawa), bungo rabhang (Madura).

b.     Nama Asing

Chinesa Rose, China Rose, Shoe flower plant, Common garden hibiscus (Inggris).

c.       Nama Latin

Hibiscus Rosasinensis Linn

Kandungan Kimia

Kembang sepatu mengandung minyak atsiri.

 

Khasiat Tanaman

1.     Untuk obat panas.

2.     Untuk obat batuk.

3.     Untuk obat TBC.

4.     Untuk obat Bisul.

 

Pedoman Penanaman

a. Pengolahan Tanah

–      Buat lubang tanam berukuran 30cm x 30cm x 30cm, pisahkan tanah bagian atas dengan tanah bagian bawah.

–      Campurkan pupuk kandang atau kompos pada tanah lapisan atas, kemudian kembalikan kelubang dan biarkan sekitar 1 minggu.

b. Persiapan Bibit

Persiapan bibit melalui stek dan cangkok.

c. Penanaman

–       Tanam bibit pada lubang yang telah disediakan

–       Jarak tanam 3 m x 3 m.

 

Lempuyang Wangi

Nama Tanaman

a.       Nama Daerah

Lempuyang nuum, lempuyang wangi (Sunda), lempuyang wangi (Jawa), lampojang rum (Madura).

b.     Nama Latin

Zingeber Aromaticum

 

Kandungan Kimia

Rimpang lempuyang wangi mengandung minyak atsiri, resin, patidangula.

Khasiat Tanaman

1.  Untuk obat kurang dara.

2.  Untuk obat sakit perut.

3.  Untuk obat TBC.

Pedoman Penanaman

a.   Pengolah tanah

–      Tanah dicangkul sedalam 30 cm, lalu diberi pupuk kandang 15 ton – 25 ton / hektar.

–      Dibuat bedengan berukuran tinggi 20 cm – 30 cm, lebar 80 cm –100c, dan panjangnya disesuaikan dengan kondisi lapangan.

b.    Persiapan bibit

–      Perbanyakan tanaman dilakukan dengan memakai potongan rimpangnya.

–      Bibit rimpang sedikitnya memiliki 3 mata tunas, panjang 3cm – 7cm dan beratnya 25 gram – 80 gram setiap rimpang.

c.     Penanaman

–      Buatkan alur-alur pada bedengan sedalam 3 cm – 7,5 cm.

–      Tanaman bibit rimpang ke dalam alur–alur tersebut, kemudian ditutup tanah kembali.

–      Jarak tanam 30 cm x 60 cm.

 

Sambiloto

Nama Tanaman

a.   Nama Daerah

Papaitan (Sumatera), Ki peurat, Takilo (Sunda), sambilata, takila (Jawa)

b.   Nama Asing

Crear, Chuanxin Lien, Common Andrographis Herb.

c.    Nama Latin

Andrographis paniculata Ness.

Sinonim  :Justicia Stricta lamk

                          Justicia Paniculata Burm

                          Justicia latebrasa Russ

 

Kandungan Kimia

Tanaman Sambiloto mengandung laktone dan flavonoid

 

Khasiat Tanaman

1.  Untuk obat malaria.

2.  Untuk obat panas.

3.  Untuk obat kurang gizi.

4.  Untuk obat TBC.

5.  Untuk obat kulit.

 

Pedoman Penanaman

a.   Pengolahan Tanah

Buatkan lubang tanam berukuran 25 cm x 25 cm x 25 cm

b.  Persiapan bibit

Bibit disemaikan dalam kantong plastik

c.   Penanaman

Bibit di tanam pada lubang tanam yang telah disediakan dengan jarak tanam 1,5 m x 1,5 m.

 

Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan maka penulis kemukakan kesimpulan sebagai berikut:

a.     Rendahnya pengatahuan masyarakat tentang penyakit TBC dan penanggulangannya.

b.    Penggunaan tanaman obat tradisional hanya dapat mencegah penaykit TBC dan tidak dapat mengobatinya secara menyeluruh serta segera berobat kedokter jika penyakit ini bertambah parah.

c.     Lakukan imunisasi BCG untuk mengobati penyakit TBC, saat bayi berusia tiga bulan keatas.

 

Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan penulis ingin mengajukan beberapa saran sebagai berikut:

1.     Pemerintah harus melakukan pengarahan kepada masyarakat di berbagai daerah tentang penyakit TBC dan cara pencegahan penyakit tersebut.

2.     Pemerintah hendaknya selalu memperhatikan keadaan lingkungan masyarakat kumuh.

3.     Pemerintah hendaknya memberikan pengobatan gratis kepada para penderita TBC.

4.     Berhubungan keterbatasan penulis dalam lingkup dan hasil penelitian, maka penelitian ini hendaknya dilanjutkan dengan lingkup yang lebih mendalam dan hasil yang memuaskan.

Tanaman Obat Untuk Pengobatan TBC

BAB I

PENDAHULUAN

 

 

A.   Latar Belakang Masalah 

 

Dewasa ini sering terdengar bahwa penyakit TBC sudah menyebar dan perlu segera ditanggulangi. Terlepas dari benar tidaknya berita tersebut, pada kenyataannya banyak penderita TBC yang dirawat di rumah sakit.

Disadari atau tidak, penyakit TBC disebabkan oleh kurangnya pengetahuan masyarakat tentang gejala penyakit TBC, juga akibat dari proses penyampaian tentang penyakit TBC dan penanggulangan penyakit ini kurang menarik bagi masyarakat umum.

Adanya pengarahan dan penyuluhan tentang penyakit TBC diharapkan dapat mendorong masyarakat untuk berbuat atau bertindak lebih jauh, bukan sekedar mengetahui gejala dasar tentang penyakit ini tetapi juga dapat menanggulangi penyakit ini tetapi dapat menanggulangi penyakit ini secara cepat dan tepat. Dengan demikian, dapat menumbuhkan pengertian, pengetahuan dan tindakan yang baik terhadap penyakit TBC.

Dengan demikian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa latar belakang penelitian ini adalah: kurangnya pengetahuan masyarakat tentang penyakit TBC, sulitnya mengetahui gejala dasar dari penyakit TBC yang diderita oleh para penderita TBC, dan kurangnya cara penanggulangan penyakit ini dari masyarakat.

 

B.   Perumusan dan Pembahasan Masalah

a.    Perumusan Masalah

Rumusan masalah dalam penelitian ini adalah:

1.    Adakah pengaruh tanaman obat tradisional terhadap pengobatan penyakit TBC.

2.    Tinggikah efek yang ditimbulkan pada tubuh melalui penggunaan tanaman obat tradisional.

 

b.    Pembahasan Masalah

Penulis membatasi masalah penelitian ini, yaitu: penggunaan tanaman obat tradisional pada pengobatan TBC.

         

C.   Tujuan Penelitian

 

Tujuan diadakannya penelitian ini adalah untuk mendapatkan data tentang tanaman obat tradisional yang akan dipergunakan untuk pengobatan penyakit TBC, sehingga dapat diketahui pula pengaruhnya terhadap tubuh atau mengatasi penyakit TBC.

 

D.   Sistematika Penulisan

 

Sebagai gambaran keseluruhan laporan, penulis membuat sistematika penulisan sebagai berikut:

BAB I      PENDAHULUAN

BAB II     PEMBAHASAN

BAB III    KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN

 

 

 

 

 

BAB II

PEMBAHASAN

 

A.   Pengertian Penyakit TBC

 

Penyakit TBC paru-paru ditularkan melalui percikan dahak atau batuk penderita TBC. Apabila kita mendengar penyakit TBC, maka bayangan yang ada dibenak kita adalah penyakit menular yang menyerang organ paru-paru.

Penyakit TBC bisa juga menyerang organ selain paru-paru seperti sendi, perut, tulang, dan selaput otak. Gejala dasar yang terjadi pada penderita TBC yaitu sebagai berikut:

1. Penderita TBC ditandai dengan batuk kronis yang tidak mau sembuh, badan tambah kurus, berkeringat dipagi hari, dan mungkin sampai batuk darah.

2.   Panas subferil (panas yang sedang-sedang saja).

3.   Perasaan mudah lelah dan nafsu makan menurun drastis.

4.   Gejala dasar TBC tampak pada keluhan batuk dan sesak nafas.

Pencegahan / meredakan penyakit TBC adalah sebagai berikut:

1.    Melakukan imunisasi BCG.

2.    Menghindari penderita TBC, ketika sedang batuk.

3.    Segera berobat kedokter kalau batuk semakin parah.

Catatan Khusus:

–          Pengobatan dengan ramuan tradisional ini tidak dapat melebihi pengobatan modern, tapi dapat mendukung penyembuhan penyakit TBC.

–          Bayi berumur 3 bulan ke atas sebaiknya diberikan suntikan imunisasi BCG, untuk mencegah penyakit TBC.

–          Apabila gejala TBC tidak dapat diatasi, bahkan bertambah berat, dan sering kambuh, harus secepatnya berobat ke puskesmas/ dokter.

B.   Ramuan Tradisional Untuk Penyakit TBC

 

a. Ramuan 1

Bahan:

Lempuyang wangi     : 1 genggam

Air bersih                     : 5 gelas

 

Pembuatan:

Akar lempuyang wangi di cuci bersih dan dipotong-potong lalu direbus dengan air bersih hingga tinggal setengahnya. Didinginkan dan disaring.

Pemakaian:

Diminum 2 kali sehari ¾ gelas.

(Pengobatan khusus untuk menambah darah)

 

b. Ramuan 2

Bahan:

Daun kaki kuda          : 1 genggam

Daun kapuk randu     : 7 helai

Gula batu                     : 1 cangkir

Pembuatan :

Daun kaki kuda dan daun kapuk randu di tumbuk dengan menggunakan sedikit air matang. Setelah halus ditambah air matang lagi dan disaring, lalu tambahkan dengan gula batu, aduk sampai larut.

Pemakaian :

Diminum 1 kali sehari pada pagi hari dan sebelum makan.

c. Ramuan 3

Bahan :

Bunga kembang sepatu       : 3 kuntum

Air masak                                 : ½ gelas

Madu                                        : secukupnya

Pembuatan :

Bunga sepatu digiling halus lalu dicampurkan dengan air masak dan madu secukupnya. Selanjutnya di peras dan disaring.

Pemakaian :

Diminum 3 kali sehari

(pengobatan ini untuk melancarkan dahak)

 

d. Ramuan 4

Bahan :

Bawang putih : 2 – 4 butir

Pembuatan :

Bawang putih dicuci bersih

Pemakaian:

Bawang putih dikunyah dan airnya ditelan

(pengobatan ini untuk menambah daya tahan tubuh dan daya penyembuhan)

 

e.  Ramuan 5

   Bahan :

Daun sambiloto segar : 1 genggam

Madu                             : secukupnya

Pembuatan:

Daun sambiloto dikeringkan, lalu digiling halus hingga menjadi bubuk, setelah itu ditambahkan sedikit madu dan dibuat bulatan-bulatan pil berdiameter sekitar 0,5 cm.

Pemakaian :

Diminum dengan air matang 2 – 3 kali sehari. Sekali minum dapat 15 – 30 pil.

 

 

C. Tumbuhan Obat yang digunakan untuk Pengobatan Penyakit TBC

 

 1.   Bawang Putih

1.1.        Nama Tanaman

a.    Nama Daerah

Sumatera lasun, bawang mentar, lasuna, bawang bodas (sunda), bawang (Jawa), Bhahang Poti (Madura)

b.    Kandungan Asing

Knof look, Ail commum, Knoblauch, Garlic.

c.    Nama Latin

Allium sativum L.

 

 

1.2.        Kandungan Kimia

 

Umbi bawang putih mengandung senyawa allicin, alliin, gurwitchrays, anti hemolytic factor, antiarthritic factor, sugar regulating factor, allithiamine, selenium, germanium antitoksin, scordinin, dan methylallytrisulfide.

 

1.3.Khasiat Tanaman

 

1.    Untuk obat asma, dan TBC.

2.    Untuk obat batuk.

3.    Untuk obat darah tinggi

4.    Untuk obat cacing

 

1.4.       Pedoman Penanaman

a.    Pengolahan Tanah

–       Buatkan selokan dengan lebar 30 cm – 40 cm, dalam 30 cm – 60 cm, tanah galian digunakan untuk bedengan selebar 60 cm – 100 cm, panjang bedengan disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan, lalu dicangkul sedalam 15 cm – 30 cm.

–       Setelah 10 – 15 hari, bedengan tersebut dicangkul kembali, hingga membentuk gumpalan halus kemudian diberi pupuk kandang 10 ton – 15 ton/hektar.

–       Sehari sebelum ditanam, bedengan di basahi dengan air.

b.    Persiapan bibit

–       Bibit  berasal dari tanaman yang cukup tua (85 hari –135 hari), sehat, dan tidak cacat.

–       Bibit disimpan dalam ruangan yang kering sekitar 6 – 8 bulan dengan cara digantung pada para-para.

–       Siung bawang untuk bibit berasal dari umbi yang beratnya 5gram – 7,5 gram/umbi.

c.    Penanaman

–       Buatkan lubang tanam sedalam 3 cm x 4 cm dengan tugal.

–       Tancapkan bibit dengan posisi tegak lurus dan ujung siung di atas yang ¾ bagian siungnya tertanam dalam tanah.

–       Taburkan tanah halus dan tutup merata dengan jerami setebal 3 cm.

–       Jarak tanam 10 cm x 10 cm atau 15 cm x 10 cm

 

2. Daun Kaki Kuda

2.1.Nama Daerah

a.    Nama Daerah

 Antanan gerde (Sunda), kostekosan (Madura), pagaga (Makasar), daun tungke (Bugis).

 

b.    Nama Asing

Indische waternavel, paardepaet, india pennywart.

 c.   Nama Latin

Centella asiatica cijurb.

Sinonim         : hydracotyle asiatica L.

2.2.Kandungan Kimia

 Daun kaki kuda mengandung senyawa glikotida triterpenoida, alkaloid, hidrakatilin, steroid, tanan, minyak atsiri, gula pereduksi, dan garam-garam mineral seperti: garam Kalium, Natrium, Magnesium, Kalsium, dan Besi.

2.3.Khasiat Tanaman

1.  Untuk obat asma.

2.  Untuk obat Batuk / TBC.

3.  Untuk obat kurang ASI / Pelancar ASI.

4.  Untuk obat kurang gizi.

5.  Untuk obat radang usus.

6.  Untuk obat luka.

2.4.    Pedoman Penanaman

a.    Tanaman kaki kuda umumnya dikenal sebagai tumbuhan liar, tanaman ini dapat diperbanyak dengan stek batang.

b.    Buat lubang tanam berukuran 25 cm x 25 cm x 25 cm.

c.    Stek bibit ditanam pada lubang yang telah disediakan dengan jarak tanam 1 m x 1 m.

d.    Batangnya tumbuh merayap/menghasilkan cabang yang membentuk tanaman baru, hingga tanaman ini membentuk rumpun yang menutupi tanah.

 

 

 

 

 

3. Kembang Sepatu

3.1.Nama Tanaman

a.    Nama Daerah

Bugong raja (Aceh), Soma-soma (Nias), Kembang wara (Sunda), Wora-wari (Jawa), bungo rabhang (Madura).

b.    Nama Asing

Chinesa Rose, China Rose, Shoe flower plant, Common garden hibiscus (Inggris).

c.    Nama Latin

Hibiscus Rosasinensis Linn

 

3.2. Kandungan Kimia

Kembang sepatu mengandung minyak atsiri.

3.3. Khasiat Tanaman

1.    Untuk obat panas.

2.    Untuk obat batuk.

3.    Untuk obat TBC.

4.    Untuk obat Bisul.

 

3.4. Pedoman Penanaman

a. Pengolahan Tanah

–       Buat lubang tanam berukuran 30cm x 30cm x 30cm, pisahkan tanah bagian atas dengan tanah bagian bawah.

–       Campurkan pupuk kandang atau kompos pada tanah lapisan atas, kemudian kembalikan kelubang dan biarkan sekitar 1 minggu.

b. Persiapan Bibit

Persiapan bibit melalui stek dan cangkok.

c. Penanaman

–        Tanam bibit pada lubang yang telah disediakan

–        Jarak tanam 3 m x 3 m.

4. Lempuyang Wangi

4.1.Nama Tanaman

a.     Nama Daerah

Lempuyang nuum, lempuyang wangi (Sunda), lempuyang wangi (Jawa), lampojang rum (Madura).

b.    Nama Latin

Zingeber Aromaticum

4.2.Kandungan Kimia

Rimpang lempuyang wangi mengandung minyak atsiri, resin, patidangula.

4.3.Khasiat Tanaman

1.  Untuk obat kurang dara.

2.  Untuk obat sakit perut.

3.  Untuk obat TBC.

4.4.Pedoman Penanaman

a.  Pengolah tanah

–       Tanah dicangkul sedalam 30 cm, lalu diberi pupuk kandang 15 ton – 25 ton / hektar.

–       Dibuat bedengan berukuran tinggi 20 cm – 30 cm, lebar 80 cm –100c, dan panjangnya disesuaikan dengan kondisi lapangan.

b.    Persiapan bibit

–       Perbanyakan tanaman dilakukan dengan memakai potongan rimpangnya.

–       Bibit rimpang sedikitnya memiliki 3 mata tunas, panjang 3cm – 7cm dan beratnya 25 gram – 80 gram setiap rimpang.

c.    Penanaman

–       Buatkan alur-alur pada bedengan sedalam 3 cm – 7,5 cm.

–       Tanaman bibit rimpang ke dalam alur–alur tersebut, kemudian ditutup tanah kembali.

–       Jarak tanam 30 cm x 60 cm.

 

5. Sambiloto

5.1.Nama Tanaman

a.  Nama Daerah

Papaitan (Sumatera), Ki peurat, Takilo (Sunda), sambilata, takila (Jawa)

b.  Nama Asing

Crear, Chuanxin Lien, Common Andrographis Herb.

c.   Nama Latin

Andrographis paniculata Ness.

Sinonim           :           Justicia Stricta lamk

                               Justicia Paniculata Burm

                               Justicia latebrasa Russ

 

5.2.Kandungan Kimia

Tanaman Sambiloto mengandung laktone dan flavonoid

 

5.3.Khasiat Tanaman

1.  Untuk obat malaria.

2.  Untuk obat panas.

3.  Untuk obat kurang gizi.

4.  Untuk obat TBC.

5.  Untuk obat kulit.

 

5.4.Pedoman Penanaman

a.  Pengolahan Tanah

Buatkan lubang tanam berukuran 25 cm x 25 cm x 25 cm

b.  Persiapan bibit

Bibit disemaikan dalam kantong plastik

c.   Penanaman

Bibit di tanam pada lubang tanam yang telah disediakan dengan jarak tanam 1,5 m x 1,5 m.

BAB III

KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN

 

A.   Kesimpulan

Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan maka penulis kemukakan kesimpulan sebagai berikut:

a.    Rendahnya pengatahuan masyarakat tentang penyakit TBC dan penanggulangannya.

b.    Penggunaan tanaman obat tradisional hanya dapat mencegah penaykit TBC dan tidak dapat mengobatinya secara menyeluruh serta segera berobat kedokter jika penyakit ini bertambah parah.

c.    Lakukan imunisasi BCG untuk mengobati penyakit TBC, saat bayi berusia tiga bulan keatas.

 

B.   Saran

Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan penulis ingin mengajukan beberapa saran sebagai berikut:

1.    Pemerintah harus melakukan pengarahan kepada masyarakat di berbagai daerah tentang penyakit TBC dan cara pencegahan penyakit tersebut.

2.    Pemerintah hendaknya selalu memperhatikan keadaan lingkungan masyarakat kumuh.

3.    Pemerintah hendaknya memberikan pengobatan gratis kepada para penderita TBC.

4.    Berhubungan keterbatasan penulis dalam lingkup dan hasil penelitian, maka penelitian ini hendaknya dilanjutkan dengan lingkup yang lebih mendalam dan hasil yang memuaskan.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

 

 

Avianti, Ida. 1996. Pedoman Perawatan dan Pengobatan Berbagai Penyakit. CV. Pionir Jaya: Bandung.

 

Budi, Hieranymus. 2003. Tanaman Obat Keluarga. Edisi 1, 2, 3. Kanisius: Yogyakarta.

 

Myhlisah, Fauziah. 1996. Taman Obat Keluarga. Penebar Swadaya: Jakarta.

Scenario Acara

“ OS3 “

THE SCENARIO

 

13.00 – 13.45    : PROLOGUE            – MC                                                  – STAGE

                                                                              – Poetry                      

                                                                              – MC

                          CLIP FILM DOKUMENTER              – UFM & ELDIVI MULIA                                     – INFOCUS

           

13.45 – 15.00    : SESSION 1                          – MC                                                  – STAGE

                                                                              – HARRY ROESLI                                

                                                                              – BUDI RAJAB                                

                                                                              – POLWILTABES KOTA BANDUNG        

                          Interactive Session                       – MC – Speakers                                – AUDIENCE

                          LIVE BAND                                   – MC – BAND         

 

15.00 – 15.30    : BREAK TIME

 

15.30 – 17.45    : LIVE BAND     `                             – MC – BAND                                     – STAGE                         – MISTERY GUEST                                                                                         – KELAMBU                            

SESSION  2               – MC                                                  – STAGE

                                                                              – Dr. HANNY RONO S.                        

                                                                              – CHRISTINA SITINDJAK,S.psi.Psikolog                                                               

                                                                              – H. AAM AMIRUDDIN ,Lc.S.Sos     

                          Interactive Session 2                    – MC – Speakers                                – AUDIENCE

 

17.45 – 18.00    : EPILOGUE                   – H. AAM AMIRUDDIN, Lc. S.Sos         – STAGE

      – MC

 

 

 

* the scheduling arrangement is conditionally tentative

Penawaran Kerjasama

“OS3” Obrolan Seks Sabtu Sore

UFM UPI Jl.Dr.Setiabudhi No.229 Bandung 40154

 ———————————————————————————————–

Nomor   : 5/OS3/UFM/I/2004

Lamp     : 1 berkas Proposal

Perihal    : Penawaran Kerjasama

 

Kepada Yth. Pimpinan majalah Percikan Iman

di

Tempat

 

Assalamu’alaikum Wr. Wb.

Salam sejahtera, semoga Bapak senantiasa berada dalam lindungan Allah swt. Sholawat dan salam semoga senantiasa terlimpah curahkan pada junjunan kita Muhammad saw, keluarga, sahabat, hingga sampailah pada kita selaku umatnya yang setia hingga akhir jaman.

 

Sehubungan dengan adanya kegiatan OS3 (OBROLAN SEKS SABTU SORE) yang dilaksanakan pada:

 

Hari/Tgl     : Sabtu, 28 Februari  2004

Waktu        : 16.00 – 18.00 WIB

Tempat      : Balai Pertemuan Bumi Sangkuriang; Jl. Kiputih No. 12 Bandung  40142

 

Maka dengan ini kami bermaksud untuk meminta Bapak Aam Amirudin, Lc, S.Sos. menjadi pembicara dalam kegiatan tersebut dengan materi “ Tinjauan Aktivitas Seks Di Kalangan Remaja Ditinjau Dari Sisi Religi”.

Demikian permohonan ini kami sampaikan dengan harapan Bapak dapat hadir untuk bersama-sama berkarya demi mahasiswa dan rakyat Indonesia. Atas perhatian dan partisipasinya kami ucapkan terima kasih.

 

 

 

                                                                                             Bandung, 26 Januari 200..

Ketua Pelaksana                                                                           Project Manager

 

 

 

            

 

 

 

  “OS3” Obrolan Seks Sabtu Sore

UFM UPI Jl.Dr.Setiabudhi No.229 Bandung 40154

 ————————————————————————————————

Nomor   : 5/OS3/UFM/I/2004

Lamp     : 1 berkas Proposal

Perihal    : Penawaran Kerjasama

 

Kepada Yth. Pimpinan BANK PERMATA CAB.BANDUNG

di

Tempat

 

Assalamu’alaikum Wr. Wb.

Salam sejahtera, semoga Bapak senantiasa berada dalam lindungan Allah swt. Sholawat dan salam semoga senantiasa terlimpah curahkan pada junjunan kita Muhammad saw, keluarga, sahabat, hingga sampailah pada kita selaku umatnya yang setia hingga akhir jaman.

 

Sehubungan dengan adanya kegiatan OS3 (OBROLAN SEKS SABTU SORE) yang dilaksanakan pada:

 

Hari/Tgl     : Sabtu, 28 Februari  2004

Waktu        : 16.00 – 18.00 WIB

Tempat      : Balai Pertemuan Bumi Sangkuriang; Jl. Kiputih No. 12 Bandung  40142

 

Maka dengan ini kami bermaksud untuk menawarkan kerjasama dengan perusahaan yang Bapak pimpin. Adapun bentuk kerjasama terlampir dalam proposal.

Demikian permohonan ini kami sampaikan dengan harapan Bapak dapat bekerjasama untuk bersama-sama berkarya demi mahasiswa dan rakyat Indonesia. Atas perhatian dan partisipasinya kami ucapkan terima kasih.

 

 

                                                                                             Bandung, 26 Januari 2004

Ketua Pelaksana                                                                           Project Manager 

 

 

                                                                                                                       

 

                                                                                                       

Tanda Terima Proposal

TANDA TERIMA PROPOSAL

 

 

Saya yang bertanda tangan dibawah ini,

Nama                                       : …………………………….

Nama Perusahaan/Instansi      : …………………………….

Jabatan                                    : …………………………….

Telah menerima sebuah proposal penawaran kerja sama sponsorship dari perwakilan panitia pelaksana acara “Obrolan Seks Sabtu Sore” pada tanggal :……………………….

Untuk kemudian menyetujui untuk memberi konfirmasi selambat-lambatnya pada tanggal 5 Februari 2004

 

Penerima Proposal

 

 

       (……………….)       

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

NOTE : Please return this form after received directly to us, or send by fax to ELDIVI                                                                           

              Mulia  Fax.no +62 22 710 6241, or mailto; joeaja_13@yahoo.com

Proposal In English Language

I. BACKGROUND.

 Basic Consideration

            Discussion concerning sex is never end or lose it`s sensational power  for anyone in any epoch. There is always  always new sex phenomenon in a society which overwhelms our young generations especially in metropolis. This matter is supported by progress of high technology that able to give colour, touch, and new strength in responding instinctive desires for adolescent so that psychological and physiological growth which overwhelms our adolescent life conjured up them into ” youngster”, whose reproduction organs biologically have matured.

 As consequence, , influence of stimulation effect in any kind of media and information which contains pornography can shape adolescent sex fantasy  into a  more extreme pattern.

            Lack of guidance from persons who are competence in sex education ( parent, psychologist, etc) and lack of comparative information media from LSM or institutions that are oriented toward adolescent sexual counseling, have allowed  adolescent to search  for another  alternative in reflecting their sexual energy.

            The misinformation regarding sex seems to affirm “new culture” existence in considering sexual behavior with its polemic, even it compensates psychologically by encouraging freer sexual interaction expressions. This obviously influences our solid eastern culture which still revering cultural value and religion norm.

 

” Seminar” as Information media

            To fulfill the necessities for valid and proper sex information media facility for young generations with their polemic, a young psychologist, Christina Sitindjak,S.Psi.Psikolog. and ELDIVI Mulia, an event organizer located in  Jl. Mulia No. 6, Bandung 40161, Tel / Fax. 022-203 8092 & 710 6241, cooperate  with UFM ( Unit Film Mahasiswa) University Pendidikan Indonesia were encouraged to accommodate explanation of important matters as consideration for them who are willing to keep on going and opening their mind toward modern society through this seminar of which explanation method and agenda material are packed in a affected form for young segment:

 

” OS3″

Obrolan Sex Sabtu Sore

Backtalk of Sex Saturday Evening.

Uncensored.

 

II. OS3.

Activity Vision and Mission

VISION : ” Seminar as information media facility for the growth of young  generations towards excellent Indonesia man.”

MISSION 1. Assisting adolescent in acknowledging and understanding sex behavior at premarriage period.

  2. Bridging the gap between parents and youth in gaining valid sex information.

  3. Acting as self actualization facility for young generation towards positive direction.

 

Activities in OS3.

            OS3 main activity is seminar in relax and rejuvenating atmosphere, as an interactive talk, which plans to invite :

  1. Gynekolog; dr. Hanny Rono S.

  2. Budayawan; Harry Roesli.

  3. Psycholog; Christina Sitindjak,S.Psi.Psikolog.

  4. Sosiolog & Agamawan; H. Aam Amiruddin, Lc. S.Sos.

  5. LSM Sidikara; Budi Rajab.

  6. Polwiltabes Town of Bandung.

OS3 also will present :

 1. Showing Movie clip of behavioral documenter of adolescent sex in town of Bandung made by UFM UPI.

 2. Live Perfomance band ; PETERPAN / PHB/ RED/ Brown Sugar (Tentative).

 3. Resource Person ; Example [of] Case perpetrator of  freesex from adolescent circle.

 

Participant of Activity.

 

            Youths, student and general with age definition 16 years old and up. With participant goals 250 people.

 

Place and Time Activity.

 

Place    : Meeting Room Hall Bumi Sangkuriang; Jl. Kiputih No. 12 Bandung 40142.

 Time   : Saturday, 28 Februari 2004.

 At        : 13.00 until 18.00 onward.

 

III. FORMATION COMMITTEE.

 

Chief                                           : Johannes M. Prasetya S.

Project Officer                                    : Dindin Abdul Muis L. S.Si.

Secretary                                      : Aminuddin S.T.

Bursar                                          : Lisa Listia S.Si.

Marketing                                    : Nur Royhan.

Documentation & Visual             : Eris Rosa

Liasson Officer                            : Noviansyah.

Permit                                          : Agung Haryadi S.Si.

Secretariat                                    : Ade Sudrajat S.Si.

Event                                           : Ujang Hendra

Information Technology              : Sukur Widi Asmoro.

Logistics                                      : Andry Kurniawan.

Transportation & Security           : Erick Ruki S.T.

 

 

 

 

 

 

IV. CONCLUSION

            Our expectation of this event can be held successfully and become important shares for the growth of young generation towards excellent Indonesian man.

            Final word presumably,only by ridho Allah SWT and morale support and materil from anyone that care can make this event successfully be helds.

 

Bandung, January 2004.

 

Chief             Johannes M. Prasetya S. Eldivi Mulia, cv

Project Officer             Dindin Abdul Muiz L.S.Si. UFM UPI Bandung

                                                                                     

Sincerrely,

 

 

 

 

 

 

Christina Sitindjak S.Psi., Psikolog.

Psycholog

Offering Cooperation of Sponsorship.

Number           : IV/JAN/028/2004.

Enclosure         : 2 proposal.

Matter              : Offering Cooperation of Sponsorship.

 

To        : UNESCO – Indonesia Representative.

Attn     : Mr. Stephen Hill

 

Dear Sir,

 

Referring to will perform an  activity ” Obrolan Seks Sabtu Sore” organized by ELDIVI Mulia,Cv cooperate with Unit Film University Student Education of Indonesia, which will be held at:

 

Date                 : 28 Februari 2004.

Place                : Convention Hall Bumi Sangkuriang Bandung.

Time                : 13.00 – 18.00 WIB.

 

Hereby we have an eye to offer a sponsorship co-operation to any company and instantion whom having interest and care concerning sex education for youth to support executing of event. The Form shapes of sponsorship and or donation contained in proposal which we enclose.

 

Finally, we expecting to hearing any confirmation from you soon. For any nescesarry please contact us at Tel./Fax. 022- 710 6241 or Mobile Phone 0856 21 31 701.

For the attention we would like to say thank you.

 

 

Yours faithfully,

 

 

Johannes M. Prasetya S.

Chief Executor

Surat Keterangan Kerja

SURAT KETERANGAN

No : 024 / SK / KBPC / 11/ 02

 

 

Yang bertanda tangan dibawah ini :

 

Nama               :  Ir. Muhtar Buchari

Jabatan                        :  HRD Manager

 

Menerangkan bahwa  :

 

Nama               :  Rochmanudin, SE

Alamat            :  Jl. Sekeloa No.1 Bandung

 

Telah bekerja pada perusahaan kami sejak bulan Januari 2000 sampai dengan bulan November 2002 dengan jabatan terakhir sebagai Marketing Supervisor, dan selama bekerja menunjukan sikap dan loyalitas pada perusahaan dengan baik.

 

Demikianlah surat keterangan ini kami buat, agar dipergunakan sebagai mana mestinya.

 

 

 

                                                                                       

 

                                                                                          Bandung , 30 November 2002

                                                                                                     HRD Manager

 

 

 

                                                                                                 Ir. Muhtar Buchari

Surat Kesepakatan Bersama

SURAT  KESEPEKATAN

Yang bertanda tangan dibawah ini  :

 

1. NAMA       : M. BAMBANG SARWAN

    ALAMAT   : Sengon, Rt. 03 Rw  08  Tanjung Brebes

    ( Sebagai keluarga korban )

    Dan selanjutnya disebut pihak ke – 1 ( satu )

 

2. NAMA       : H. RUSLI  SUJANI

    ALAMAT   : JL Gede bage selatan No. 65 Bandung.

    ( sebagai keluarga yang bertanggung jawab )

    Dan selanjutnya di sebut pihak ke – 2 ( dua ). 

 

Dengan ini menyatakan kesepakatan ke dua belah pihak atas terjadinya kecelakaan lalu-lintas yang menyebabkan meninggalnya istri saudara M. Bambang Sarwan dengan nama : HECI WENARNI, pada hari sabtu, Tgl 20 maret 2004, Jam 14.00 Wib, di Jl Gede Bage Bandung.

Adapun pertanggung jawaban dari pihak ke –2 ( dua ) sebagai berikut  :

–          Membayar segala biaya rumah sakit dan biaya pemakaman korban dengan nilai

      Rp 6.500.000,-

–          Memberikan Asuransi Jasa Raharja senilai Undang- Undang yang berlaku.

 

Demikianlah surat kesepakatan ini di buat atas dasar kekeluargaan dan untuk dipergunkan sebagai mana mestinya.

 

Bandung, 31 maret 2004

Pihak ke- 1 ( satu )                                                                      Pihak ke – 2 ( dua )

 

 

 

M. BAMBANG SARWAN                                                      H. RUSLI SUJANI

 

Saksi pihak ke-1 ( satu )                                                           Saksi pihak ke-2 ( dua )

 

 

      S O L I H I N                                                                               Bp. A J O  

Surat Penerimaan

Kop Surat

—————————————————————————————————————————————

SURAT PENERIMAAN

ACCEPTANCE LETTER

 

 

Saya yang bertanda tangan  dibawah ini menyatakaan PENERIMAAN (ACCEPTANCE) berkaitan dengan  DISCREPANCY yang terjadi atas hasil inspeksi barang impor kami dengan data sebagai berikut :

 

I/O Number                 : 005264

Exporter                      : Megatex Co., LTD

Country Of Origin      : Taiwan

Date of Inspection      : 15^th July 2003

Date Of Shipment       : 17^th July 2003

Date Of Arrival           : 27^th July 2003

Discrepancy                : Quantity

                                      I/O Mentioned          : 90,000 yrds

                                      Inspected                  : 117,612 yrds

 

Demikian surat Penerimaan (ACCEPTANCE LETTER) ini untuk digunakan sebagai bahan masukan bagi pihak  KSO – SSI dalam rangka penerbitan Laporan Surveyor atas barang impor kami tersebut.

 

 

Bandung, 18 July 2003

Penanggung jawab

 

 

 

 

 

 

Yayat Hidayat

Direktur

 

Surat Kuasa

                                                                                                Bandung, 10 februari 2004

 

 

Kepada  :   Yth

                   Bpk Dwi

                   Di tempat

 

 

 

 

Bersama dengan surat ini, saya yang bertanda tangan ditangan di bawah ini  :

 

            Nama               : Muchtar Buchari

            Jabatan            : Direktur

            Alamat             : Jl. Sukarno – Hatta 162

 

Memberikan Kuasa, kepada :

 

            Nama               : Husein

            No Mobil         : B 9878 NO

Dan

 

            Nama   :           : Mustofa

            No Mobil         : B 9680 AZ

 

Untuk mengambil container kosong dengan spesifikasi :

 

No Conatiner	Ukuran
HJCU 8576778	20 feet
GSTU 8220028	40 feet

 

Demikian surat kuasa ini saya buat untuk dipergunakan sebagaimana mestinya.

 

Terima kasih atas perhatian dan kerjasamanya.

 

 

 

 

 

Salam,

 

 

 

 

 

 

(Muchtar Buchari)

 

 

 

“Luka”

 

Luka adalah keadaan hilang/ terputusnya kontinuitas jaringan tubuh.

Berdasarkan penyebab luka dibedakan atas :

1. Luka memar
2. Luka sayat
3. Luka tusuk
4. Luka robek
5. Luka akibat gigitan binatang
6. Luka bakar
7. Patah tulang

 

Luka memar

Luka memar adalah suatu perdarahan di dalam/bawah jaringan epidermis (jaringan kulit atas) akibat pecahnya pembuluh darah yang disebabkan oleh benturan benda tumpul.

Ditandai dengan warna kebiruan / kehitaman pada kulit dan dapat membenjol tergantung luas dan banyaknya perdarahan dalam yang terjadi.

 

Penanganan

1)      Bersihkan luka dari kotoran dengan betadine / alkohol

2)      Lakukan penanganan dingin : tempel luka memar dengan batu es atau bila tersedia semprot dengan Chlor etyl

3)      Bila tersedia berikan cream pengencer darah seperti Thrombobpop dengan hati-hati

4)      Bila perlu rujuk pada dokter untuk mendapatkan pengobatan seperti penahan rasa sakit dan obat lainnya

 

Luka lecet

Luka lecet adalah luka pada kulit epidermis (bagian atas) akibat tergores/  bergeseran dengan benda kasar atau runcing. Pada luka lecet perdarahan relatif sedikit atau tidak ada tergantung dengan luas luka. Kedalaman luka kurang dari 0,3 cm

 

Penanganan

1)      Bersihkan luka dengan betadine

2)      Bila perdarahan tidak ada / sangat sedikit biarkan luka terbuka setelah dibersihkan. Namun bila didapatkan perdarahan relatif banyak luka ditutup dengan tensoplast atau perban.

 

Luka sayat, luka tusuk, luka robek

Luka sayat adalah luka lebar dengan tepi tajam, lurus, beraturan yang diakibatkan oleh goresan benda tajam.

Luka tusuk adalah luka dengan kedalaman melebihi lebar luka akibat tusukan benda tajam.

Luka robek adalah luka dengan tepi tak beraturan atau compang-campingbiasanya karena benturan / goresan / tarikan benda tumpul yang keras hingga merobek kulit.

Ketiganya memiliki kedalaman lebih dari 0.3 cm sehingga perdarahan selalu banyak.

 

 

      Penanganan

1)      Berikan penekanan pada bagian atas luka

2)      Bersihkan luka dengan betadine

3)      Tutup luka dengan kain kasa dengan sedikit penekanan

4)      Rujuk ke dokter atau puskesmas karena mungkin membutuhkan penjahitan atau pemberian suntikan antitetanus, atau antibiotika.

 

Luka akibat gigitan binatang

Luka akibat gigitan / sengatan binatang ditandai dengan adanya bekas-bekas gigi atau taring atau tusukan kecil. Sangat berbahaya bila binatang tersebut beracun dan atau korban alergi terhadap racun tersebut. Tanda2 kegawatan adalah bila terjadi salah satu atau lebih:  kemerahan yang luas, korban merasa lemas, kedinginan yang tidak normal, luka disebabkan binatang berbisa,  pingsan.

 

Penanganan

1)      Berikan penekanan pada bagian atas luka

2)      Bersihkan luka dengan betadine

3)      Bila terjadi pada tangan/ kaki, balut luka sampai ke atas lebih kencang.

4)      Rujuk ke dokter untuk mendapatkan anti alergi atau anti bisa.

 

Luka bakar

Luka bakar adalah luka yang diakibatkan oleh sentuhan api/ benda panas. Tergantung derajat keparahannya, atau lamanya sentuhan dapat terlihat kemerahan, lepuh, jaringan tubuh yang meleleh/ hancur, gosong / kehitaman.

 

Penanganan

1)      Bila masih baru segera dibilas/ dibasuh dengan air dingin.

2)      Bersihkan luka dengan betadine

3)      Berikan salep pendingin levertran atau bioplacenton

4)      Rujuk ke dokter untuk mendapatkan obat minum.

 

Patah tulang

Patah tulang adalah retaknya atau terputusnya kontinuitas jaringan tulang atau tulang rawan umumnya akibat benturan keras. Dapat terlihat kelainan bentuk, penonjolan abnormal, ukuran panjang yang berbeda antara kiri dan kanan pada kasus patahnya tulang anggota gerak, juga kesulitan bergerak, dan rasa sakit pada saat bergerak.

 

Penanganan

1)      Jangan biarkan bagian yang patah bergerak, bisa dengan pembalutan atau bidai

2)      Bila tak ada perdarahan berikan semprotan Chlor etyl untuk mengurangi rasa sakit

3)      Rujuk ke dokter

Pingsan

(kehilangan kesadaran)

 

Pingsan adalah hilangnya kesadaran yang ditandai tidak adanya respon pergerakan pada rangsang lingkungan.

Kehilangan kesadaran dapat disebabkan oleh beberapa hal, antara lain ;

1) Kelelahan

2) Tenggelam

3) Gangguan fungsi jantung

4) Diabetes

5) Epilepsi

 

Penanganan pingsan

1)      Periksa pernafasan, (ajak bicara, bila tidak respon rasakan nafasnya dengan punggung tangan), bila tidak ada nafas lakukan resusitasi.

2)      Bila terdengar ngorok miringkan penderita pada posisi mantap. Periksa nadinya, bila cepat (nadi normal 80-100X/menit), mungkin shock dan harus cepat dibawa ke dokter.

3)      Longgarkan pakaian yang terlalu ketat.

4)      Bila terlihat kepanasan boleh dilap dengan air pada bagian-bagian tertentu, bila menggigil kedinginan diselimuti dengan kain kering.

5)      Jangan biarkan penderita dikerumuni terlalu banyak orang.

6)      Boleh gosokkan minyak angin atau minyak kayu putih, juga pada bagian depan hidung dengan tujuan agar penderita mendapat rangsang bau-bauan.

7)      Bila telah sadar betul berikan sesuatu yang manis-manis, misalnya teh manis hangat.

 

Lain-lain

1)      Jaga barang milik penderita agar jangan sampai hilang.

2)      Bila tidak yakin betul jangan segan-segan kirim penderita ke dokter.

                 

Indikasi Perhatian Kasus-Kasus Di Kolam

 

Berikut adalah kasus-kasus tertentu pada pengunjung untuk lebih diperhatikan juga oleh kita.

 

Epilepsi

 

Epilepsi dapat terjadi kapan saja, juga pada saat menyetir, berenang. Bahaya yang terjadi di kolam adalah bila terjadi masuknya benda-benda lain ke jalan nafas, penghisapan air, dan benturan pada saat terjatuh.

Penanganan:

1)      Bila terjadi di kolam angkat segera korban dari kolam

2)      Miringkan korban ke posisi mantap

3)      Sumpal mulut korban dengan kain (jangan sampai mulut penuh)

4)      Tunggu sampai kejang berhenti, lalu lakukan pemeriksaan ABC (seperti pada resusitasi)

5)      Bila terjadi henti nafas atau henti nadi lakukan resusitasi

6)      Bila terjadi luka beri penanganan luka

 

Penyakit jantung

 

Pada penyakit jantung, kerja jantung sebagai pompa akan berkurang. Suhu tinggi pada kolam akan menyebabkan pembuluh darah sebagai pipa melebar. Seperti selang air yang terlalu lebar, tekanan cairan ke atas akan berkurang, menyebabkan bagian atas tubuh seperti otak kekurangan darah. Sebagai pompa yang bertanggung jawab akan suplai darah, jantung akan bekerja lebih keras, lebih cepat, yang mana kemudian akan terjadi kelelahan jantung pada orang tua dan penderita sakit jantung. Gas disekitar kolam juga akan berkompetisi dengan oksigen masuk ke paru-paru, akibatnya tubuh kekurangan oksigen dan jantung harus memompa lebih keras agar suplai oksigen terpenuhi, yang juga akan mengakibatkan kelelahan jantung. Kelelahan jantung dapat berakibat pingsan, bahkan henti jantung. Hal yang sama juga terjadi pada kasus hipertensi. Korban dapat merasa sesak, atau dada kiri seperti ditusuk-tusuk.

Penanganan:

1)      Bila terjadi di kolam angkat korban dari kolam pelan-pelan

2)      Bila terjadi karena koban beraktivitas terlalu keras, istirahatkan korban dalam posisi duduk

3)      Bila masih sadar, penderita jantung didudukkan agar tidak sesak

4)      Biarkan istirahat, tanyakan ada tidaknya obat2 jantung yang dibawa

5)      Bila pingsan baringkan miring posisi mantap, lakukan penanganan pingsan biasa

6)      Bila tak ada nafas atau nadi lakukan resusitasi

 

Penyakit Diabetes

 

Pada diabetes gula darah dapat drop sewaktu-waktu yang dapat menyebabkan pingsan. Selain itu, pembuluh darahnya kaku, menyebabkan regulasi suhu terganggu, jantung juga harus bekerja lebih keras.

Penanganan:

1)      Bila pingsan lakukan penanganan prosedur pingsan biasa

2)      Bila sadar berikan sesuatu yang manis- manis tiap 15 menit

3)      Tanyakan apakah korban membawa obat anti diabetes

 

Asma

 

Asma adalah penyakit paru-paru yang dapat terpicu oleh polusi, bau-bauan, gas-gas pada kolam dan gas gunung berapi. Ditandai dengan sesak, kadang kadang nafas berbunyi, berat pada saat mengeluarkan nafas.

Penanganan:

1)      Tanyakan apakah pernah menderita asma, tanyakan apakah gejala ini sama dengan asma sebelumnya.

2)      Bila iya, jauhkan korban dari pemicu.

3)      Dudukkan korban, berikan obat asma bila dia membawanya.

 

Alergi

 

Alergi dapat terpicu oleh hal- hal yang sangat berbeda-beda antara seseorang dengan yang lainnya. Misalnya oleh suhu terlalu dingin, terlalu panas, makanan tertentu, debu, polusi, ikan, udang, juga beberapa zat yang terkandung dalam air panas mineral/ kolam juga jutaan jenis hal lainnya. Ditandai dengan rasa gatal mendadak yang meluas, kemerahan pada kulit, bila parah dapat terjadi pingsan, karena pembuluh darah melebar dan tekanan ke atas (otak) berkurang.

Penanganan:

1)      Tanyakan apakah pernah alergi sebelumnya dan pemicunya

2)      Jauhkan/ bersihkan korban dari pemicunya

3)      Bila sadar berikan / anjurkan minum obat anti alergi seperti insidal

4)      Oleskan salep anti alergi

5)      Bila pingsan segera kirim ke dokter

 

Iritasi mata

 

Terjadi akibat masuknya benda-benda ke mata. Ditandai mata merah.

Penanganan:

1)      Bilas mata dengan tetes mata visine

2)      Anjurkan agar mata jangan digaruk

Hamil muda

 

Pada hamil muda terdapat bahaya karena janin masih rapuh. Walau belum dapat dibuktikan, pengaruh suhu mungkin dapat menyebabkan pembelahan sel janin terpengaruh. Pada orang hamil juga kerja jantung bertambah karena harus memompa suplai janin, akibatnya hal yang sama pada penderita sakit jantung (kelelahan jantung) dapat terjadi dengan cara yang sama.

Penanganan:

1)      Bila terjadi di kolam angkat korban dari kolam pelan-pelan

2)      Bila terjadi karena koban beraktivitas terlalu keras, istirahatkan korban dalam posisi duduk

3)      Bila masih sadar, didudukkan agar tidak sesak

4)      Bila pingsan lakukan penanganan pingsan biasa

5)      Bila henti nafas atau henti jantung lakukan resusitasi

 

—oOOOo—

“Thesis Osaka Planning”

REVIEW ESTIMATION GENETIC PARAMETERS EVALUATION TOWARD CALVING DIFFICULTY AND BIRTH WEIGHT DAIRY FRIESIAN HOLSTEIN AT FIRST AND LATER PARITIES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THESIS

 

 

By YUDI

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MASTER PROGRAM

THE ANIMAL GENETIC SCIENCE

KANSAI UNIVERSITY

OSAKA – JAPAN

2007

CHAPTER I

 

INTRODUCTION

The aim of study is to describe the genetic parameter for traits reproduction dairy Friesian Holstein. The effective amount of selection pressure, however, in both cases depends on the degree to which the phenotypic variation, on which the selection differential and the selection coefficients are based, is reflected by genetic variation. It seems rather obvious that the changes in the genetic composition of a population from generation to generation, changes of which the shifts in the phenotypic mean will be representative (under a constant environment), are thus a function of the accuracy with which either nature or man recognizes genetic differences on the basis of phenotypic differences between individuals or groups of individuals. Intimations of this fact were apparent to early geneticists. Many of them recognized that a phenotype represents a combination of genetic and environmental effects, of which only the first would contribute to changes in a population, which are attributable to selection. As a single example the viewpoint of Yule (1906) may be cited. In discussing ancestor-offspring correlation, he stated: “A complete theory of heredity should take into account, besides germinal processes, the effect of the environment in modifying the soma obtained from any given type of germ-cell-an effect which is hardly likely to be negligible in the case of such a character as stature.” As early as 1910 Weinberg (1909, 1910) suggested methods of separating genetic and environmental components of total phenotypic variability, but his contribution to the subject was overlooked for many years, sharing the fate of his independent discovery of what was subsequently referred to in genetic literature as Hardy’s binomial (Stern 1943). It was only several years later that Wright (1917 et seq.) and Fisher (1918), independently of each other and apparently unaware of Weiberg’s papers, developed comprehensive techniques of dealing with the problem. The first of Wright’s papers dealt with a case in which the genetic and the environmental types of variation were separated by experimental rather than statistical means.

Similarly the environmental variance of the underlying variate may be independent of the mean genotypic value (the level of incidence or p), but this property may be lost on the p scale. This is apparent from the fact that environmental variance on the p scale, which, of course, is the total variance for any given fixed genotype, is equal to pq, where q =1-p. For the range of genotypes with p values from, say, .35 to .65, the environmental variance is reasonably constant, but in the extreme ranges of p from 0 to 0.1 and from 0.9 to 1.0, it is nearly directly proportional to p and to q respectively. Finally, the categorical nature of the p scale may obscure the finer degrees of measurable variation (as for example age of death, where viability in a set period of time is considered). All of these circumstances vitiate to some extent the utility of the degree of heritability determined on the p scale. Lush, Lamoreux and Hazel (1948) held that probit transformation avoids some of the objections to the p scale. As in the previously noted work of Wright, the transformation is based on the concept of an underlying variate with a normal environmental distribution, whose variance is independent of the genotypic level. The heritability on the probit scale is independent of the threshold value, above which the character will be manifested in individuals whose underlying variate exceeds it, whereas on the p scale heritability viding the genetic variance is not too large compared to the environmental variance) varies approximately in proportion to Zz/(ptj), where is the ordinate of a unit standard normal curve cutting off an area equal to p. The p scale heritability then, in terms of the probability of an individual exhibiting the character, would be low for values of p near zero or unity and relatively high for intermediate values. Robertson and Lerner (1949) have shown that the situation is similar where there are a number of underlying variates, although the distribution of h² is, of course, somewhat different in form.

The probit transformation may be a satisfactory one for the purpose of comparing heritability values but it is not apparent how it can be used for devising optimum selection indexes nor is it at all convenient in many situations for computing expected rates of gain. It appears useful therefore to investigate the conditions, if any, under which serious errors are likely to result from the use of the convenient p scale and the nature and magnitude of such errors. Such an investigation might disclose that the p scale can be used without hesitation in many situations and with some reservations or with corrections in others. The results of such a study might also suggest in a general way the degree to which a scale can deviate from the optimum one without leading to selection indexes that depart seriously from the optimum or to computations of gain that are much in error. Where calculations of the gain from mass selection based on the p scale lead to correct results there is good reason to conclude that calculations of the gain from family and combined selection will also be accurate, as well as that the usual methods for the computation of optimum indexes will also be applicable to a high degree of approximation. The converse of this statement is, however, not necessarily valid. The present investigation is chiefly concerned with a study of the gains that would result from mass selection on an all-or-none basis in comparison to estimates of gains whose computations are based on heritability determinations on the p scale, as well as with gains that would result could selection be based on direct observation of the underlying variate. The bearing of these findings on indexes for combined individual and family selection is discussed briefly.

 

The Mathematical Model

The first step in the proposed investigation involves the comparison of genetic gains computed on the basis of h² determined from the p scale with those expected on the postulate of a normally distributed underlying variate. The assumptions involved are that: (1) There is an underlying variate whose value is the sum of a normally distributed environmental component and an independent normally distributed genetic component; (2) The character is present in all those individuals, and only those, in which the underlying variate exceeds a certain threshold value; and (3) Gene substitutions have individually small and strictly additive effects on the underlying variate.

There is no claim made here that these conditions actually describe the situation with respect to all characters of an all-or-none nature. It is, however, reasonable to believe that a model in which additiveness is the property of the underlying variate (on what will henceforth be referred to as the x scale) approaches actual situations more closely than one based on additive gene action on the p scale.

These traits are subjectively scored categorical traits, influenced by both direct (calf) and maternal effects and with generally low heritabilities reported in the literature (Koots et al., 1994a). Friesian Holstein calving records for purebred dairy calves have not previously been used in the genetic evaluation of dairy breeds. Review index Birth weight record previously has been used as an indicator trait to avoid calving difficulties. High genetic correlations between calving ease and birth weight have been different univariate and bivariate analyses for Friesian Holstein calves born at first and later parities ranged from 0.44 to 0.51 for direct effects and 0.06 to 0.15 for maternal effects. Reported in reviews by Meijering (1984) and Koots et al. (1994b). This relationship is unfavorable because birth weight is positively correlated to growth rate after birth (Mohiuddin, 1993; Koots et al., 1994b).

yI                       xi      0              bI             Zmi     0     mi   Zai     0     ai             ei      =                      +                        +                                  + yj          0      xj    bj          0    Zmj    mj   0     Zmi    aj       ej

There seems to be an optimal value for birth weight with regard to calf viability (Meijering, 1984). Koots et al. (1994b) reported positive genetic correlations between birth weight and perinatal mortality, suggesting that in most studies, birth weight was larger than optimum. Calving difficulty and stillbirth generally have higher incidences in the first parity vs. later parities and have been suggested in some studies to be genetically different, but correlated, traits in first and second-parity cows (Weller et al., 1988; Luo et al., 2002; Steinbock et al., 2003). This information is needed to review genetic parameters via evaluate whether more direct measures of calving difficulty and birth weight should be considered in the genetic evaluation based on field data.

 

1.1. General Background

The Indonesian highly needs of nutrition has a great influence to the pattern and people consume rates. This nutrition is needed for either recovering of organ system or the human body tissues, which may be giving sense to growing up developing optimally. Its source is an animal production. But, precisely, it’s milk. By now, It’s availability really need a great support of various components hopefully can be covering the Indonesian’s less nutrition. The low of milk production caused by less production power of management level and technologies implemented, they did not work as well as what the people hope. In the other words, illustrated the milk production level was not enough yet. Therefore, we need both system and seriously development patterns which actually human resource is the only one answer, especially to develop the dairy cattle.

They are meaningful for producers. It’s obtained if the dairy has a high production power. However, the system and development patterns used, they must be directed that is to form and to produce the dairy with a higher productivity. They could be done by re-evaluating of genetic ability from generation to the next generations through the genetic parameter review and re-evaluation of data calving difficulty or the weight birth as an action before selecting. The calving selection system is a routine program, only through the review record of calving difficulty and weight birth. It’s a way to choose a high productivity of dairy cattle; we have to put them as the main priority.

Genetic can be the explain of the strengthen an animal have an opportunity for turn up of heritability value. Afterwards how highest value and lowest value that we has gotten been the statistical analysis? Apart of primary and especially cases will carrying many thought that exactly. The component structure of the animal body it’s framer by mixing many components in a convenient manner. Its difficulty and different with frame brain and their good component as completed structure.

The genetic constructions objective was building and completing an animal physic. The developed of genetic parameters were convenience of the animal grew up. In additional, the according to researchers and genetics were genetic parameters depends on lifetime an animal and production periods. But, a few studies treating to the repeated discussing genetic parameters the primary reviewing estimation genetic parameters (e.g. calving difficulty and birth weight), and they are finding of the development an animal productions and reproduction system. Attempted, of the genetic by researchers has to shown value predicting and significant. The components genetic constructions using should be the involving of the likelihood statistical theory there are combining variances of data production and than data analyzing. Both data combined that is the primary an animal production to estimates birth weight and they are fill of terms will choice one of many data of the animal production. Therefore, we need one method to overcome and least failure of genetic parameters were its would be reviewing the reverse as a main point to recovering traits and than review will been one of method exactly. Review is good step to repeated result research and towards make up return on results. The definition of the animal genetic parameters that are the mixing compositions from many special characters should be from parents respected.

If our selves view points of genetic parameters are an animal constructions is an abstraction. Hence, constructing abstraction as a matter of facts, it’s a true and so be clearly visible cause we look at that based of view side an animal skeleton and genetic regeneration. The parents as subject to offering something as contributions of the improvement have offspring. We’ll know that in according to researchers both parents can given portion should be about 50% respected from there. But, a few researchers said, it’s the truth of the genetic constructions not always 50% respected; sometime we found should be 75% and 25% respected. May be depending on RNA and DNA chains that there are in the genetic parents. It’s not always the truth a new discuss but it’s really for every an animal parents. Not only in discuss, cause many researchers was give illustrate what both parents should be contribution for offspring? We’ll be the simple answered that is both parents of the truth would be offer something as contribution for offspring genetic ability that alike (50%) respectively. By re-evaluating of genetic ability from generated to the next generation as a way to overcome the lost of new generation, caused calving difficulty and over birth weight.

For various reasons apart have based on the components of the genetic construction becomes primary to the framer and repairing characteristic an animal (offspring). The others supporting of the components by nutrition supply and environmental variety. But before intake food consumptions may be we have to know based analyzed purpose that would be easy in research. Don’t treating to the comment for something if you’re not really sure with your research and discuss. While you have good topic, I think the topic these good case and become clear if we understand in the explanation. Believed with what do you have and than do it as a job can make public interest of your idea. Some people it is indeed so really sure with discuss genetic construction but it is not fixed.

This comment is a Garrick (1997), which assesses challenges to genetic improvement in some agricultural industries in New Zealand. Both comments draw on the outline presented by Clarke et al. (1992) in using a clear and well-accepted framework for describing the key elements of any improvement program. The current paper begins by discussing what is meant by the term “review estimation genetic parameter” and majority with examples one of some different subject discuss, then examines several of data reproduction and production that is calving difficulty and birth weight. May be both subject research are the primary factors to improvement and arising reproduction and production traits. This is new making form to increasing the animal ability in the other word “high efficiency”. Sometime we must been care on ours the animal welfare life, why we especially look at that? The simple comments there are small factors can enough we are making to the mistaken in get sense traits that involved genetic parameters. At three Australian industries seeking to highlight progress in each, to identify particular local challenges, and to explore aspects that will required attentions from the national perspective. Finally, we suggesting some challenges for national programs that will be presented by new statistical and reproductive technologies, and briefly discussing the value of across-industry benchmarking. Value its toward calving difficulty and birth weight Frisien Holstein at first and later parieties can make help to know potentially of reproduction and production tissue. The tissue is right constructions and make up from many nutrients index and formula exactly, its not decreasing of multiple growth up that’s to calving to adult of growth and production. It so hope full thing by farmer and researchers.  They’re can do assistance to gain profit on their wants. Responsible between geneticist, researchers and farmer it will be greats safe to gain production.

1.2. Problem Statement

Problem Identification

Genetic improvement programs at the animal (e.g. dairy cattle production) level are a well-understood process aimed at generating favorable genetic change in the animals. We must been in correct on usually with the aim of improving profit may be it’s not difficulties if we are understand the current development of the estimation genetic parameters. In simple terms this process consists of three key decisions are as: what does breed for (breeding objectives), which animals to breed from (evaluation and selection), and how to mate the selected individuals (mating programs). What, if anything, changes as we adopt one step to recovering “Review Estimation” perspective, and hence what is meant by the terms “Genetic Parameters Calving Difficulty and Birth Weight for first and later parities especially Friesian Holstein”?

Clearly, the simple describes of the major differences between estimation genetic parameter that is evaluation calving difficulty and birth weight perspective and that of Friesian Holstein for first and later parities are:

·         Calving difficulty or in another word “dystocia”. That is trend the majority of selection emphasis in dairy breeding is placed on production and reproduction traits. Meaning selection emphasis is we must been focus in selected the reproduction traits not only of production traits. Both traits reproductive are important in maximizing longevity and reducing losses due to mortality and after stillbirth. Without care and focus of reproduction traits will carrying trouble these on birth density, total populations and operational costs (e.g. labor and veterinary costs).

·         Definition due to both traits that is the truth of complete chains to perspective will consider many decision-makers and the entire breeder-to-reproduction traits of chains.

·         Higher calving difficulty will trend higher losses cost to assistance on birth, cause higher birth weight. In the meantime, we must look at extra to assistance of dairy cattle the majority these on time when an animal will be birth.

For that is we need to review again what can we do to assistance and being avoid repeatedly calving difficulty and than increased to stillbirth. May be not only calf but mother can do it. The difficulty on stillbirth level not always can changes and bias to theoretical. The solution can do that is the management exactly. The concentration of management should be became importance to repaired genetic parameters (e.g. calving difficulty, birth weight, etc.) and than we’ll find a method to improvement an animal reproductive traits. The exactly of management (e.g. breeding management, feeding management, or general management), we’ll make ourselves relax of reproductive cases. Wherever and whoever reproductive cases in an animal herd don’t ever has a bad feeling and than we’ll under pressure of reproductive cases.

1.3. Objectives and Structure of the Thesis

 

Genetic Parameters

Calving Difficulty

 

Dairy farmers around the world are faced with an increasing amount of information and number of choices regarding their breeding programs. Genetic is now available as an easy formed to build up by developed re-evaluation of dairy cattle ability reproductive. In imagine know we could be choose the animal that good conditions. And many technologies to enlarge ability of bulls from a variety of countries with breeding values presented on a variety of traits. However, many non-production traits are not evaluated and presented by all countries. The rate of stillbirths and dystocia (calving difficulty) are examples of traits that are not always evaluated.

These differences have been summarized by Smith (1978) and can affect decision-making in all three-core areas (breeding objectives, evaluation and selection, and mating programs). An additional difference is that national improvement programs have invariably enjoyed some form and amount of governmental support in response to various aspects of market failure, based on the premise that was quite valid until the introduction of BLUP, that genetic improvement programs are both very slow and quite risky, and on the fact that few individual firms could fund the necessary scientific/technical expertise and R&D programs. Responses to these are changing: firstly because attitudes to role of government are changing, and secondly because well-organized improvement programs using BLUP invariably generate proven high rates of genetic change and these in turn stimulate more attention to optimizing the entire program.

Allowing that management and funding of “review as one method to making of improvement” is changing and will likely change further, a simple definition of such programs is that they involve some collective reproduction and production data from the whole industry and possibly producers to reviewing back of result statistical analysis, and there may be some attempt to redistribute profits with the true of the result, either directly through the result of the statistical analysis will corrected be based by theoretical. And we are importing many literate to discussing of cases on genetic parameters. Some form literate will help to reply statistical analysis.

Genetic, environmental, and management factors influence the scores for calving difficulty assigned by dairy personnel at the birth of a calf. These scores are analyzed by use of mixed model methods, which are applicable to categorical traits, to estimate the effect of factors (e.g., herd-year, sex of calf, parity, season, and sire of calf) that affect calving difficulty. The nonlinear methods used in the analysis are based on the standardized threshold model concept (7), which assumes the existence of an underlying unobservable normal variable that is categorized through fixed thresholds. The relationship between scores (1 = no problem to 5 = extreme difficulty) and the underlying continuous scale of risk associated with the unobserved variable. Sires are evaluated for calving ease based on a standardized threshold model (5) at Iowa State University; the evaluation is supported by NAAB. The model includes effects of herd-year, sex of calf, parity of dam, season of birth, birth-year group of sire, and sire of calf (5).

 

The evaluation of each sire is reported to dairy producers as the expected percentage of difficult births (EDB) in primiparous cows. Other information available about the evaluation of each sire includes the effective progeny number, the expected progeny difference (EPD), a 67% confidence interval, and the probability that the EDB is greater than breed average (P. J. Berger, 1990, unpublished data). Scores for calving difficulty are each 1 unit apart on the observed scale; however, differences between consecutive scores on the underlying scale of risk may be <1 or >1 unit apart. Therefore, thresholds or points on the continuous scale of risk marking the transition between outcomes for calving ease are estimated as part of the analysis. Herd-years are included in the threshold model analysis to account for 1) different uses of the scale for scoring of calving difficulty and 2) natural variability in the frequency of dystocia among herds and years within herds. Estimates of risk factors can be severely biased by ignoring the effect of herd-year, particularly if herd effects are large. Consideration of herds as fixed or random effects remains debatable. A threshold model with herds as fixed effects can give arbitrarily small or large estimates of herd effects when all scores for a subclass fall in the same category (7). The problem can be avoided by deletion of subclasses with all scores in the same category Q, treatment of herds as random variables (7), or fixing of the numerical limit for estimates (9). Random herd-years seem to be more appropriate for the national calving ease evaluation because more effective use is made of all information rather than a censored subset that is not representative of the frequencies of scores for dystocia in the population.

 

Other adjustments are also necessary: season, because dystocia is more frequent during winter than during summer; sex of calf, because males have a higher frequency of dystocia than females; parity, because primiparous cows have the highest frequency of dystocia, followed by second parity cows, and third and later parity cows in decreasing proportions; and birth-year group of sire, because the average genetic merit of sires can change over time. A fixed genetic base was implemented in 1990. Currently, progeny of all bulls born before 1977 determines the genetic base. The threshold model makes possible comparison of sires with different frequencies of progeny in one or more of the discrete categories for calving difficulty. Estimates of sire effects or EPD are the primary indication of the genetic merit of each sire for calving ease. The EPD are relative to the underlying mean of all sires in the population. A standardized threshold model (5, 7) is used; therefore, the EPD are distributed on a scale with a mean of 0 and a variance of 1, which is similar to the normal distribution that forms the basis for theoretical statistics. The EPD are estimated by use of progeny information from herds throughout the US. All progeny from all sires contribute to the estimation procedure, which is based on differences among sire progeny means for dystocia within herd-years, and these differences are pooled across all herd-years. Therefore, comparisons among sires in the population are direct and indirect.

 

Sires with progeny in the same herd-years are compared directly. Two sires are indirectly compared when they each have progeny in the same herd-year as a third sire. For example, the difference in sire progeny means between sire A and sire B in one herd and sires A and C in a second herd, (B-A) – (C – A) = B – C, gives the desired result. Sire A is a reference sire in this example and because data are from a large AI population, many reference sires provide comparisons among sires across herds and years. Calving difficulty scores for progeny of all sires and pedigree information are vital parts of the evaluation procedure for calving ease.

 

Pedigree information is a supplemental source of genetic information to actual progeny records but does not replace actual progeny records. Sires, generally those with larger progeny groups, contribute to the evaluation of sons and grandsons that are usually young AI bulls with fewer progeny. This pedigree information is incorporated into the analysis by use of the inverse of the matrix of relationships among all bulls with progeny, their sires, and maternal grandsires (8).

 

Calving Ease

 

Dystocia context are the several of the partus processing on female. Dystocia is not an all-or-none trait. Variation exists within sire progeny groups. Easy calving sires may have some progeny that are born with difficulty. Difficult calving sires can have some progeny that are born without assistance. Unlike other traits with genetic predictions expressed on a continuous scale of measurement (e.g., PTA for milk yield), EPD for calving ease are in standard deviation units and are difficult to interpret, particularly when the original data were scores of 1 to 5. The method of reporting each sire’s evaluation helps dairy producers understand the expected risk of using a sire chosen for easy or difficult calving and addresses their needs in planned mating to minimize calving difficulty of future progeny. The evaluation of each sire is reported as the EDB (i.e., the percentage of all births in the future scored 4 or 5 when the sire is mated to heifers). The EDB is calculated by transforming a linear function of the solutions from the threshold model (e.g. EPD) to a scale of probabilities. Figure 3 gives the EDB range and the frequency of sires with these values for the 20,195 sires evaluated during 1992. Some sires may have limited progeny information, particularly young sires, and their evaluation for calving ease is subject to change as more progeny information becomes available for later evaluations. The reliability of each sire’s evaluation for calving ease indicates the amount of information (i.e., from progeny records and the pedigree) available to determine the predicted merit for calving ease. Reliability is calculated by using the procedures reported by Berger (1). Reliability is properly used to choose among bulls with similar predicted genetic values for calving ease.

 

Dairy producers are encouraged to choose a bull with a higher reliability if the choice is between two bulls with the same EDB for calving ease. Of course, considerations other than calving ease affect the choice of bulls for breeding (e.g., PTA for milk yield). Therefore, a dairy producer may choose a bull with lower reliability for calving ease to achieve higher performance for other traits. In this case, bulls with lower reliability for calving ease should be used less frequently than other bulls of equal genetic merit for calving ease and higher reliability.

 

The analysis is based on direct the correct of main point from statistical result. But statistical result get is in form skore that is heritability value (h²), by heritability value we can prediction main position character’s for an animal with compared   comparisons among with progeny in the same herd-years. Sires in herd-years without progeny of other AI sires in the same herd-years contribute little information to the analysis. Therefore, it is important to have as much information as possible from all sires in the same herd-years. Bulls achieve higher reliability of their genetic prediction for calving ease because their progeny are distributed over many herd-years with the progeny of other sires. The relationship between reliability and the effective progeny number, the number of progeny for a sire with directs comparisons with progeny of other sires in the evaluation.

 

Dystocia evaluations are intended to increase the use of AI for heifers. Bulls can be selected so that the likelihood of a difficult calving is reduced, When bulls chosen for easy calving are selected for mating to heifers, this selection should follow or be within groups of bulls of comparable genetic merit for traits with higher economic value than that for dystocia (e.g., milk yield). The sire evaluations for calving ease can be used to improve the economic efficiency of herd breeding programs without giving up genetic improvement for traits that are part of the selection objective. Yearly mean EDB of bulls that are available for breeding (unweighted) and the mean EDB of bulls used in breeding programs (i.e., weighted by the number of progeny). Breeding organizations do not select bulls for calving ease, which is confirmed by the relatively constant unweighted mean EDB. Because the weighted mean EDB is lower than the unweighted mean, bulls chosen for easy calving are used more frequently than their contemporaries with higher EDB. Therefore, the opportunity to reduce calving difficulty has been an effective incentive for producers to mate more heifers to AI bulls. National in scope and international in implication, the NAAB Calving Ease Sire Evaluation program benefits AI organizations, dairy producers in the US, and dairy producers in other countries who routinely import semen, embryos, and animals.

 

Birth Weight

Birth weight will changes for every partus and every time. Birth weight can helped to the explaining capability of the genetic parameters concept. Some researchers were back up birth weight to data and their do it for every time. We know that we will found the difference an animal of birth weight for every time. Calves will has birth weight ….

 

1.4.    Conceptual Framework

In all animal breeding, and dairy cattle are no exception, no new genetic material is created. Rather, it is simply a matter of sorting or rearranging the many factors already present in the male and female gametes. These factors are referred to as genes. They are contained in the chromosomes of the sperm of the male and the egg of the female.

 

Dairy animals have 30 pairs of chromosomes in each cell. The number of genes per chromosomes is not definitely known; estimates are that there may be as many as 30.000 genes for dairy cattle. These genes are responsible for how the animal looks and produces.

 

When the sperm and egg unite, the new cell formed contains 30 pairs of chromosomes, or a total of 60 chromosomes, half of which come from the sperm (male) and half from the egg (female). What determines which genes and which chromosomes are to be passed on to the new cell is still a relatively dark secret.

 

If our self view side of genetic parameters is an animal constructions is an abstraction. Hence, these  as a matter of facts, it’s a true and so be clearly visible cause we look at that based of view side an animal skeleton and genetic regeneration. The parents as subject to offering something as contributions of improvement has offspring. Well to know and in according to researchers both parents can given portion should be about 50% respected from there. But, a few researchers said, it’s the truth of the genetic constructions not always 50% respected, sometime we found should be 75% and 25% respected. May be depending on RNA and DNA chains that there are at the both parents. It’s not always the truth a new discuss but it’s really for every an animal parents. 

 

For many years, genetic improvement of the U.S. dairy cattle was focused on identifying and selecting an animal superior (cow’s), with little attention given to the evaluation of bulls. As improved methods were developed, dairy producers who used them gained some advantage in rate of genetic improvement over their competitors. In order, the following methods of genetic evaluation were used in the past: (1) lactation record, (2) daughter average, (3)  daughter-dam comparison, (4) herdmate comparison, and (5) contemporary comparison. Each of these is briefed in the sections that follow.

 

The United States dairy industry and consumers have benefited greatly from the national research program on genetic improvement of dairy cattle conducted by the Animal Improvement Programs Laboratory (AIPL), Agricultural Research at the land-grant universities. Genetic evaluation of bulls (Sire Summaries) and cow (Cow indexes) emanating from this research have been the primary source of information for identifying animals with superior genetic merit for yield. We’re can look out and comparison, what can do it to repaired and to developed genetic science by researchers from an Indonesia? May be their has good concepts and good procedural to improvement by Artificial Insemination and the first of the way that is selection offspring from superior parents (male or female).  They’re choosing of Artificial Insemination, as a means of dairy cattle improvement, is now accepted and utilized worldwide. The increased use of outstanding sires to enhance production potential, control certain genital diseases transmitted through natural service, and encourage general mass improvement is well recognized. 

The people highly need for information and knowledge especially such as the recently not relevant on new conceptualities and research results. It’s to talk of convenience on especially knowledge conceptualization that’s become fail, very difficult, that is not connected and than we founding only mis-appreciate the facts. The people asked that what meant of the genetic conceptualization? This is a main conceptual that papers theory and the results of the data analysis. That’s true, we must been the conceptual about genetic parameters. But know, the genetic parameter that we know and simple definition “the knowledge is associated by pedigree theoretical”, that is true. More than it is of definition exactly for know that is not easy. Why I say, about these?   

Although the majority of selection emphasis in dairy breeding is placed on production, many non-production traits are important in maximizing longevity and reducing losses due to mortality and illness. Unfortunately, many non-production traits are influenced more by environment and less by genetic ability thereby reducing heritabilities of these traits. As well, there is often a maternal genetic effect that complicates evaluation and selection on these traits. Furthermore, genetic variability of health and reproductive traits may contain more non-additive (non-transmittable) genetic components, which further reduce effectiveness of traditional selection for these traits. Regardless, traits such as stillbirths and dystocia do constitute financial losses to the dairy farmer and should be considered in breeding and management programs.

The normal range of heritabilities for stillbirths and associated traits were given by Philipsson et al. (1979). As shown, heritability of stillbirths is very low, particularly for cows (.00 to .02), and therefore, direct selection against stillbirths would be relatively ineffective. Fortunately, genetic correlations with other traits do exist. A particularly strong correlation (0.6 to 0.8) exists between stillbirths and dystocia and a moderate correlation (0.4) exists between stillbirths and birthweight. These associated traits do present other alternatives to selecting directly against stillbirths. For example, selection for calving ease (selecting against dystocia) instead of rate of stillbirths, provides many advantages. Heritability of direct and maternal calving ease is 0.11 and 0.12, respectively (Dwyer, 1984), which is several times higher than heritability for stillbirth rate. Since rate of stillbirths and calving ease are highly correlated, it is more efficient to select indirectly for rate of stillbirths by selecting for calving ease. According to Meijering (1985):

“… it is questionable whether sire evaluation for stillbirths is worth the effort at all in the present situation, considering the extremely small sire variance. For, even if habitability was three times as high as presently estimated, indirect selection through dystocia would be as efficient as direct selection for stillbirth given the present effective progeny group sizes and genetic correlations.”

In addition to more effective protection against stillbirths, selection for calving ease also reduces the associated costs of assisted calving, longer days open, and reduced milk production of the dam.

Several non-genetic factors have been examined for their impact on stillbirth rate and calving performance, the most important being the dam’s parity, sex of calf, nutritional status of dam, and season of calving. Heifers have been found to have stillbirth rates 2 to 4 time higher than cows (Van Dieten, 1963; Grommers et al., 1965; Laster and Gregory, 1973). Sex of calf is thought to have a significant effect on calving ease, but has little effect on stillbirths (Cloppenburg, 1966; Philipsson, 1976; Hassig and Scholte, 1979). Also, heifers or cows with improper nutritional regimes may experience reduced calving performance and consequently higher stillbirth rates (Arnett et al., 1971; Lowman, 1979). Slightly higher rates of stillbirths have been reported in the summer months (Lindstrom and Vilva (1977), presumably due to lower surveillance rate when animals are in pasture.

In light of the very low heritability of stillbirths and the significant effect of many non-genetic and environmental factors, raw mean stillbirth rates associated with individual sires could be extremely misleading. In most cases, the reasons some sires will appear to have more stillbirths are due to non-genetic factors or by chance. When progeny groups sizes become large (500 daughters) the probability that high numbers of stillbirths are caused by chance are reduced. Simple Chi-squared tests could be used to illustrate the effect of small sample sizes on significance of average number of stillbirths. However, systematic non- genetic factors including parity, season of calving, or breed interactions cannot be ruled out. The proper procedure to evaluate sire differences for stillbirth rate involves careful BLUP sire evaluation techniques, but with a low heritability, as in this case, very large progeny group sizes would be needed to determine any differences between sires. Unfortunately, large progeny group sizes reduce the number of bulls that can be tested and, therefore, reduces the rate of genetic progress for production traits. Furthermore, standard BLUP evaluations assume multivariate normality of data (Henderson, 1973), and with categorical variates such as dystocia and stillbirth, this assumption is not met, there by reducing the probability that animals are correctly ranked (Gianola, 1980; Portnoy, 1982).

Because there is a positive correlation of 0.4 between calf size and stillbirth, the possibility exists that if the female being bred is smaller than average or the calf size is larger than average, the rate of stillbirths could increase. This could be the situation if the dam is a heifer as mentioned above. This could also occur if a significant difference for size exists between breeds. In many populations around the world, North-American Holsteins have been used on smaller varieties of the Friesian breed or other breeds. Because of the size difference between breeds and the effect of heterosis on calf size, initial crosses between breeds should be made carefully. For example, only cows or larger heifers should be considered during the first few generations of introducing the larger Holstein strain. Also, North-American sires are routinely evaluated for calving ease making selection against dystocia possible. Nutrition programs emphasizing rapid growth of heifers may also reduce stillbirths due to calving difficulties. Size has increased in the Canadian Holstein breed over the last 15 years, but better nutrition program for heifers were also emphasized during the same period. As a result, the stillbirth rate for heifers has fluctuated but remained on average below 7%. The stillbirth rate for cows has remained much more constant with an average of 2.9%.

 

 

 

1.5.     

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE OBSERVE

 

2.1.    General History of Genetic an Animal

2.2.    General Manner of Genetic Parameters

2.3.    Previously of Researches

 

2.4.    Specification of Genetic Parameters

2.4.1.      Calving Difficulty

Calving difficulty of Holsteins has a major economic impact on the dairy cattle industry. The National Association of Animal Breeders sponsors genetic evaluation of AI sires for calving ease. The AI organizations and dairy records processing centers collect data from herds that have progeny of AI bulls. Genetic predictions of merit for calving ease have been available for Holstein AI bulls in the US since 1978. A threshold model was implemented during 1988. The threshold model adjusts for the effects of herd-year, season, sex of calf, parity, and birth-year group of sire to predict the genetic merit of each sire for calving ease. Pedigree information from sires, sons, and grandsons is also included in the analysis to improve the reliability of genetic predictions for bulls that have pedigree data available. Each sire’s genetic prediction for calving ease is reported as the expected percentage of difficult births of primiparous cows. National in scope, genetic predictions for calving ease are used internationally by breeders of dairy cattle to minimize the risk of difficult births of primiparous cows and to increase the use of AI for young cows.

 

Genetic improvement programs have been applied to a wide number of traits of dairy cattle. Although the selection objective is usually limited to increased production, other traits can improve the economic efficiency of individual herd breeding programs. Dystocia, defined as delayed and difficult parturition, has a major economic impact on the dairy cattle industry (4, 6, 12). The purpose of this paper is to focus on current policies and procedures for the genetic evaluation of AI sires in the US for calving ease. A full discussion of technical details is not possible here in.

 

Brief History

 

Research on dystocia began in 1972 under the direction of Pollak and Freeman (11) at Iowa State University with data provided by Midwest Breeders Cooperative, which is now 21st Century Genetics (Shawano, WI). Select Sires (Plain City, OH) also collected some early data. Pollak (10) analyzed the first data on dystocia in Holsteins and later identified many of the factors associated with dystocia (e.g., season of birth, sex of calf, parity of dam, and sire of calf) (11). During 1977, the National Association of Animal Breeders WAAB) began sponsoring the evaluation of Holstein AI sires in the United States for calving ease. Initially, evaluations were computed within AI organizations. Beginning in 1980, the evaluations were computed across all AI organizations to allow inter-organizational comparisons. Scores for calving ease were analyzed until 1987 with a BLUP sire model (2) that included the inverse of the relationship matrix among sires. An ordered categorical analysis that uses a threshold model was implemented during 1988 (3, 5). Reliability of each sire’s evaluation,

 

2.4.2.      Birth Weight

CHAPTER III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

 

 

3.1. Choice of Data

 

Field data on birth weight, and calving performance for purebred Friesian Holstein cattle were obtained from the Dairy Industry or department of animal breeding, which is responsible for the Friesian Holstein dairy recording scheme. In total, the available calving data included information on calving traits for 3000 calves born from 2001 to 2004, and the weight data included information on birth weight for 2500 Friesian Holstein calves born from 2001 to 2004. Records where the calf was the result of embryo transfer or not embryo transfer single born were excluded from the analyses, as were observations of calves with cows older than 168 mo of age. Observations on birth weight outside the accepted range of 18 to 75 kg were discarded. The majority of discarded observations were excluded because of too small herd-year contemporary groups. After these edits, the final data set included information on calving traits for 2700 Friesian Holstein calves and on birth weight for 2200 Friesian Holstein Dairy.

 

Data Structure

Relationship information dated back to animals born in the late 1990s. The identities of cow and sire were known for 100% and close to 100%, respectively, of all calves with observations. The identity was also known for more than 98% of maternal grandsires and grandcowes of all calves with observations. Records of parity number were not available and had to be calculated from the full data set. If a cow was older than 44 mo at the birth first recorded calf, the observation was grouped with those from later parities. In the data average ages of cows at first and later parities 24 mo and 60 mo, respectively for Friesian Holstein. The age of the cow at first parity was grouped as 20 to 25, and 26 to 30, and 31 to 35, and 36 to 44 mo of age, and for later parities, the classes were less than 42 to 54, 55 to 66, 67 to 78, and 79 to 168 mo of age at calving. Four season of calving (November to February, March and April, May and June, and July to October) were used in the analyses. Birth herd–yerd contemporary groups were small, with the median size ranging from four records for Friesian Holstein, three records. The ratios of numbers of male and female calves in first and later parities, respectively, were 0,97 and 1,06.

 

3.2. Traits Definitions

 

Birth Weight. Birth weight was recorded in kilograms up to 4 d after calving, either by the farmers or by a technician from the dairy recording-scheme.

Calving Difficulty. Calving performance was recorded in the Holstein dairy-recording scheme as easy calving (unassisted), normal calving (assisted by one person), normal calving with malpresentation of the calf, difficult calving (assisted by more than one person), difficult calving with malpresentation of the calf, caesarean section, or calving induced by hormone injection. The frequency of caesarean sections and induced calvings was calving ability and birth weight 377 very low (<0.5% in all cases). Therefore, in this case we make to the grouped these together with difficult calvings and assigned the value 1 for unassisted calvings, 2 for normal calvings, and 3 for difficult calvings. Malpresentations were not treated separately (i.e., these were included with other normal or difficult calvings). Calves without a record of calving difficulty score (<0.01%) were assumed to have had an easy calving. No transformation of scores for calving difficulty was made since the use of equally spaced scores has been suggested to have negligible effects on heritability estimates (Naazie et al., 1991; Abdel-Azim and Berger, 1999).

 

3.3. Estimation of Genetic Parameters

3.3.1. Statistical Methods

 

Estimation of genetic and environmental parameters was performed by two-trait analysis using calving difficulty trait along with birth weight. The different sex (grandcows and grandsires) were analyzed separately. Both univariate and bivariate linear animal models were used. The basic bivariate model for estimating variance components for first parity traits was:

 

 

 

 

 

where yi and yj are observed birth weight, calving difficulty score. The vector [b’i b’j] contains for all traits the fixed effects of herd-year, season, and combination of sex of the calf and age group of the cow. For birth weight, the fixed effect of age at weighing in days was included in the model. The X and Z matrices are incidence matrices relating the observations to the fixed and random effects, respectively; m is a vector of maternal genetic effects; a is a vector of additive genetic effects of the animals; and e is a vector of random residuals. The models for later parity traits also included a random permanent environmental effect of the cow, pe. For random effects, the means were zero and the variances were as follows:

 

 

 

_

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Where A is the relationship matrix. For bivariate analyses with first-and later-parity traits, the permanent environmental effect of cow was only included for later parities, and residual covariances were assumed to be zero since the traits were measured on different animals. Covariances between genetic and environmental effects were assumed to be zero, and no variances due to dominance or epistatic effects were assumed to exist. Covariances were estimated using the average information algorithm (Jensen et al., 1997) for restricted maximum likelihood included in the DMU package (Jensen and Madsen, 1994). The convergence criterion was chosen so that the norm of update vector for the covariance components was less than 10⁻⁴. Asymptotic standard errors of covariance components were computed from the inverse average information matrix. Standard errors of genetic correlations were obtained by Taylor series expansions (Madsen and Jensen, 2000).

 

Heritabilities. Direct and maternal heritabilities on the observable scale were calculated as σ²a/σ²P and σ²m/σ²P, respectively, where σ²P= σ²m+σa,m + σ²a + σ²e for all traits in the first parity and σ²P= σ²pe + σ²m+ σa,m + σ²a+ σ²e for later parities. Heritabilities on the underlying continuous scale were approximated from the heritabilities on the observable scale to enable comparisons with other studies, using a transformation described by Gianola (1982):

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

where η_k is the score for response, π_k is the probability of response in the kth category (k = 1, 2, . . ., m), and z_k is the ordinate of a standard normal density function corresponding to thresholds between categories k and k + 1. For two response categories as for birth weight, it reduces to: h²_underlying = h²_observed [π(1 -π)]/z², as shown in Dempster and Lerner (1949).

 

Implementation and software. Variance-covariance parameters for all models were estimated using manual computed or the software package, ASREML (Gilmour et al., 2001). Heritabilities (h²) and all correlations (genetic-rg, residual-re, and phenotypic-rp) were computed using estimated variance-covariance matrices. In ASREML, it was possible to get standard errors for all estimated parameters or its ratios. In total, there were 61 blocks of genetic analyses (31 for univariate and 30 for bivariate analyses). It was not our aim to compute correlations (covariances) among type traits or between calving difficulty and birth weight at first and later parities.

 

Chapter IV

RESULT AND DISCUSS

 

 

Chapter V

CONCLUTIONS AND SUGGESTS

 

 

 

References

Arnett, D.W., Holland, G.L., and Totusek, R., 1971. Some effects of obesity in beef females. J. Anim. Sci., 33: 1129-1136.

Cloppenburg, R., 1966. Geburtsverlauf bei nachkommen von Schwarzbunten bullen einer westfalischen Besamungsstation. Thesis, Georg-August University, Gottingen.
Dwyer, D.J., 1984. The effect of selection bias on calving ease evaluation of Holstein sires. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
Gianola, D., 1980. A method of sire evaluation for dichotomies. J. Anim. Sci. 51: 1266-1271.
Grommers, F.J., Brands, A.F.A., and Schoenmakers, A., 1965. Mortaliteit van kalveren bij de partus van Nederlandse runderen. Tijdschr. Diergeneeskd., 90: 231-244.
Hassig, H. and Schlote, W., 1979. Untersuchungen zum Geburtsverlauf bei Fleckvieh-farsen. Zuchtungskunde, 51: 275-288.
Henderson, C.R., 1973. Sire evaluation and genetic trends. In: Proc. Anim. Breeding Genetics Symp. in Honour of J.L. Lush. Am. Soc. Anim. Sci. and Am. Dairy Sci. Assoc., Champaign, IL, pp. 10-41.
Laster, D.B. and Gregory, K.E., 1973. Factors influencing peri- and early postnatal calf mortality. J. Anim. Sci., 37: 1092-1097.
Lindstrom, U.B. and Vilva, V., 1977. Frequency of stillborn Calves and its association with production traits in Finnish cattle breeds. Z. Tierz. Zuchtgsbiol., 94: 27-43.
Lowman, B.G., 1979. Pre-calving management and feeding of the beef cow in relation to calving problems and viability of the calf. In: B. Hoffmann, I.L. Mason and J. Schmidt (Editors). Calving Problems and Early Viability of the Calf. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, pp. 392-407.
Meijering, A. 1984. Dystocia and stillbirth in cattle – A review of causes, relations and implications. Livest. Prod. Sci., 11: 143-177.
Meijering, A. 1985. Sire evaluation for calving traits by Best Linear Unbiased Prediction and nonlinear methodology. Z. Tierzuchtg. Zuchtgsbiol. 102: 95- 105.
Philipsson, J., 1976. Studies on calving difficulty, stillbirth and associated factors in Swedish cattle breeds. II. Effects of non-genetic factors. Acta Agric. Scand., 26: 165-174.
Philipsson, J., Foulley, J.L., Lederer, J., Liboriussen, T. and Osinga, A., 1979. Sire evaluation standards and breeding strategies for limiting dystocia and stillbirth. Report of an EEC/E.A.A.P. working group. Livest. Prod. Sci., 6: 111-127.
Portnoy, S. 1982. Maximizing the probability of correctly ordering random variables using linear predictors. J. Multivar. Anal. 12: 256-269.
Van Dieten, S.W.J., 1963. Mortaliteit van kalveren bij de partus à terme van MRIJ-runderen. Thesis, University of Utrecht. The Netherlands.

 

“Pola Peternakan Tradisional VS Modernisasi Peternakan Sapi Perah”

By. Yudi

 

Usaha peternakan sapi perah sebagai salah satu jenis usaha yang erat kaitannya dengan usaha masyarakat desa. Namun, sebelum kita berbicara lebih jauh mengenai pola peternakan tradisional versus modernisasi peternakan, perlu di jelaskan sedikit arti kata tradisional dalam dunia peternakan. Tradisional berarti rendahnya tingkat adopsi teknologi modern yang ada dalam usaha peternakan atau tidak adanya pengakuan atas teknologi yang digunakan dalam kegiatan operasional. Mungkin mereka mempunyai alasan sederhana mengapa tidak menerima teknologi modern yang diperkenalkan oleh para akademisi dibidang yang berkompeten (misalnya, insinyur peternakan, master, doctoral bidang peternakan, Profesor). Mereka menganggap bahwa teori hanyalah pembicaraan yang membosankan dan memiliki banyak sekali perbedaan dengan aplikasi sebenarnya di lapangan. Mungkin pula mereka lebih mengakui anggapan seperti ini “kondisi terkadang memaksa kita untuk memperpanjang masa adopsi terknologi modern yang sesuai dengan tuntutan intensitas dan kualifikasi peternakan. Padahal sebagai peternak, adopsi secara praktis adalah cara terbaik buat kami”. Tradisionalisme ini pula yang telah membatasi peternak dalam mengembangkan pola peternakan mereka. Sehingga kemajuan usaha peternakan tradisional ini seakan diam di tempat. Pernyataan tersebut dikondisikan berdasarkan sudut peningkatan jumlah populasi, tingkat produksi, dan yield milk.

Mereka tetap berada dalam lingkungan persaingan usaha karena anggapan mereka peternakan tradisional masih cukup menguntungkan dengan prospek yang menjanjikan. Para peternak merasa sangat yakin sekali bahwa ternak sehat berarti mereka juga ikut sehat. Ketangguhan tradisionalisme dalam bersaing dengan modernisasi menjadikan pola ini meregenerasi. Dikatakan tangguh alasannya bahwa peternakan tradisional tidak kenal dengan istilah gulung tikar.

Pola tradisional yang ada dalam usaha peternakan sapi perah membuat komunitas peternak (producers) selalu merasa berada pada level paling bawah dalam ruang lingkup tingkatan usaha peternakan. Producers adalah istilah yang patut pula mereka miliki karena alasan tersebut di atas. Kesederhanaan yang mereka miliki saat ini cenderung mengarah pada tradisi (regenerasi) dengan dunia peternakan masa lalu. Kesederhanaan tersebut terlihat dari sistem ataupun pola yang ada dan masih tetap dipertahankan sebagai bentuk livestock culture yang sudah ada sejak lama atau dengan kata lain regenerasi usaha peternakan tetap konstant. Padahal kalau kita selami lebih dalam komunitas ini telah memberikan kontribusi yang sangat besar bagi kemajuan perekonomian secara intern maupun extern.

Kekuatan ekonomi secara intern dapat dilihat dari kemampuan para peternak dalam mempertahankan tradisi maupun sarana prasarana peternakan yang mereka miliki dan mereka gunakan. Hasil dari penggunaan kesederhanaan sarana dan prasarana inilah yang memberikan warna intern dalam pola kesederhanaan mereka untuk mewujudkan kebahagiaan sebagai bentuk pemenuhan kebutuhan rumah tangga. Itu semua terjadi sudah sejak lama. Namun pada dasarnya tradisi itu masih berlaku dikalangan mereka sampai dengan sekarang. Produksi ternak yang mereka kelola tentu saja bisa dikatakan sebagian besar adalah mata pencaharian pokok keluarga, sehingga pemenuhan kebutuhan keluarga sendiri akan produksi ternak mereka sering kali sudah dalam bentuk perubahan bentuk hasil (product) yaitu berupa finansial yang memang dibutuhkan oleh keluarga. Artinya produksi yang dihasilkan oleh usaha mereka tersebut tidak hanya terbatas pada pemenuhan kebutuhan keluarga dalam bentuk hasil utama dari produksi ternak, tapi cenderung produksi ternak-ternak yang mereka kelola memberikan kontribusi sangat dominan bagi pemenuhan kebutuhan masyarakat luas. Dalam artian bahwa peternakan yang mereka pertahankan dan kelola masih tidak jauh berbeda dengan modernisasi peternakan yang sedang tumbuh sekarang. Kalau dilihat dari tujuan produksi ternak, sebenarnya perbedaannya ada pada penggunaan alat dan sistem peternakan yang dikelola. Jadi hasil produksi peternakan tradisional ini dapat kita jabarkan sebagai bentuk extern. 

Intensifikasi usaha peternakan sapi perah secara tradisional tidak perlu kita hanya menutup sebelah mata atau berpangku sebelah tangan, seolah kita merasa bukan dari sebuah komunitas masyarakat peternak. Padahal mungkin saja kita adalah salah seorang dari konsumen. Konsumen atau costumer berarti peranan kita adalah menyambungkan mata rantai komunitas tersebut jangan sampai terputus. Dapat dilakukan melalui sumbangan-sumbangan pemikiran yang berwawasan developed profesionalisme. Semua itu adalah bagian sumbangan yang sangat diharapkan sekali dalam membangun dan memperbaiki citra peternak tradisional yang ada di negara kita ini.

Antusiasme peternak untuk memajukan usaha peternakan sapi perahnya adalah bagian mata rantai utama yang harus mendapat perhatian dari kita sebagai profesionalis muda. Kontribusi guna pencapaian komplektisitas usahanya itu semakin sangat diperlukan agar mampu mendorong peningkatan pola pikir komunitas tersebut agar menjadi komunitas yang tahan banting (mampu bersaing dengan komunitas peternak luar). Walaupun peternakan tradisional yang ada di negara kita hanya mengandalkan kesederhanaan, namun hal tersebut bukan menjadi sesuatu yang dapat merendahkan citra. Dengan kesederhanaan peternak tidak perlu merasa khawatir dalam mengembangkan peternakannya. Semakin lama pasti akan menemukan beribu pengalaman. Alasannya, butuh tameng berharga dalam mengatasi berbagai masalah yang ada dalam peternakannya. Dari yang saya lihat bahwa peternakan tradisional itu bukanlah peternakan rendahan tapi cenderung peternakan yang mempertahankan pola peternakan tetuanya (sistem regenerasi).

Yield atau hasil yang didapatkan-pun tentunya tidak lebih besar dibandingkan dengan yield peternakan modern saat ini. Tetapi, jika kita pantau dan dilihat dari dekat peternakan tradisional itu memiliki keistimewaan efek komponen yield yang sangat rendah sekali terhadap konsumen. Misalnya, dengan pola peternakan tradisional sudah tentu penggunaan bahan tambahan dalam usaha peningkatan produksi jarang atau sama sekali tidak pernah digunakan, jelas sekali hal inilah yang membuat perbedaan dengan pola peternakan modern. Dalam pola peternakan modern antusias peternak untuk meningkatkan yield menjadi terlihat jelas. Bukan berarti mau memberikan kritikan terhadap modernisasi peternakan, tapi pada saat kita lengah dan membiarkan modernisasi itu menyerang, maka pada saat itu pula aturan-aturan baru maupun cara meningkatkan yield akan menjadi bagian terpenting bagi peternak. Untuk itu, kita harus berani memberikan kritikan baru dengan prinsip-prinsip kebenaran tentunya dapat memberikan kontribusi istimewa bagi kemajuan kedua pola peternakan yang ada. Sekali lagi secara pribadi pantas menanyakan kondisi sebenarnya tentang bagaimana yield terbentuk? Dan dapat dipastikan bahwa kita akan menciptakan pertanyaan-pertanyaan baru pula dalam bentuk pertanyaan dengan penjelasan hasil yang mengkritisi realitas peternakan tradisional versus peternakan modern. Coba tanyakan pada diri sendiri mengapa saya begitu percaya akan modernisasi peternakan saat ini, padahal seutuhnya sebagai professional muda dan konsumen sampai saat ini belum mempunyai andil di dalamnya? Saya berharap harus dapat memberikan analisis yang mudah dimengerti karena modernisasi peternakan yang terjadi, yaitu saat modernisasi memang telah menelanjangi tradisionalisme yang telah saya bangun entah sudah berapa tahun lamanya. Mungkin begitulah apabila kita mendengar celotehan singkat dari peternak yang menyadari bahwa produk atau yield milk peternakannya telah menyumbangkan sebagian dari awal kehancuran pola peternakan tradisional, padahal sebetulnya tidak perlu adanya imbas sebagai efek samping yang diperoleh oleh konsumen atau customer product peternakan yang terlanjur telah mengadopsi modernisasi.

Kenapa kita harus mempertahankan komunitas usaha peternakan sapi perah tradisional yang ada di negara kita atau dengan kata lain untuk wilayah-wilayah tertentu yang telah terlanjur melekat dengan citra peternakan sapi perahnya? Kita perlu memberikan jawaban yang pasti dengan mengkritisi citra peternakan tradisional itu sebenarnya seperti apa dan bagaimana seharusnya kalau kita ingin menjadikan peternakan tradisional sebagai pendukung utama perekonomian negara? Tidak tertutup kemungkinan bahwa dengan pengelolaan yang terarah dalam peningkatan komplektisitas peternakan sapi perah dapat menjadi sumber utama peningkatan perekonomian masyarakat pedesaan (komunitas peternak), dan perbaikan komunitas bisnis perdagangan produk olahan yang bersumber dari sapi perah.

Pada saat kita sadar bahwa sebagai customer dalam hal ini sebagai konsumen maka komplektisitas usaha ini sepertinya telah menjadi otak yang benar-benar harus dimatangkan. Mengapa demikian? Mari kita perjelas sedikit saja, terutama mengenai “tubuh”, salah satunya yang sering kali menjadi pokok penunjang gerak tubuh, agar kita tetap berjalan sebagaimana manusia sehat, yaitu pertulangan sehat. Kesehatan menjadi dambaan setiap insane, karena itu nutrisi dan olah raga yang seimbang akan menjadi bagian sangat penting guna mendukung proses-proses yang terjadi dalam tubuh dan secara nyata dalam aktivitas yang dilakukan sehari-hari. Kenapa pertulangan kita sehat dan kuat, apakah yakin bahwa kita tidak pernah sama sekali mengkonsumsi susu? Jawabannya cukup hanya anda saja yang tahu. Kalau saya berpendapat, bahwa produk peternakan juga ada didalamnya, yaitu susu. Pengecualiannya adalah bayi, tapi untuk sekarang ini-pun konsumsi susu sapi tidak mutlak bagi orang tua saja, namun bagi bayi-pun susu sapi sepertinya bukanlah hal yang aneh lagi (produk olahan susu). Dimana susu telah diproses sedemikian rupa guna memenuhi kebutuhan sang bayi seperti susu-susu yang telah melalui berbagai proses guna mempertahankan kualitas, kemudian susu tersebut disulap menjadi produk yang sangat menggeliatkan hati orang tua, melalui iming-iming label yang ada pada produk olahan susu, bahwa produk susu ini adalah produk yang tepat untuk memenuhi kebutuhan bayinya.

Seperti kebanyakan orang mengatakan bahwa susu yang sudah menjadi produk olahan susu adalah salah satu jenis sumber penyumbang nutrisi sebagai asupan nutrisi tambahan dari jenis makanan. Jelas tubuh kita membutuhkan nutrisi yang seimbang. Berarti sedikit banyaknya asupan produk susu ke dalam tubuh maka itulah salah satu bentuk ketergantungan kita terhadap komunitas peternakan. Jelas dan jelas!. Perlu kita sadari sebagian sumber kehidupan kita (sebagai seorang konsumen) akan sangat berkorelasi dengan nyawa komunitas peternak. Dan ketertarikan yang sangat besar terhadap salah satu produk peternakan bararti tidak bisa kita pungkiri lagi. Semuanya telah membuat kita terus bergairah dalam memberikan kejelasan prospek ke depan khususnya kondisi dan prioritas dunia peternakan melalui penciptaan kontinuitas konsumsi. Terlihat jelas bahwa inilah suatu mata rantai yang sangat baik bagi dunia peternakan karena semuanya itu telah mendapatkan keseimbangan diantara keduanya, yaitu komunitas peternak dengan komunitas konsumen. 

Semakin besarnya persaingan pasar yang kita ciptakan dengan peternakan luar menuntut kita harus dapat memberikan kontribusi yang sangat serius agar komplektisitas usaha ini menjadi lebih mantap. Sayang sekali hal tersebut terbuang begitu saja, karena objek yang dimiliki telah disia-siakan tanpa kemapanan kita untuk menciptakan sebuah komunitas intern professional dalam pengembangannya. Saya merasa sadar sekali bahwa wajah suram yang ada dalam komunitas peternakan kita menjadi kendala besar untuk mewujudkan persaingan yang mau tidak mau akan dihadapi pada masa-masa sekarang ini. “Tradisional vs modern” menjadi kata-kata yang sangat menyesakkan bagi peternak tradisional dan peternak modern.

Komunitas peternak sapi perah, sepertinya terus saja mencoba untuk meyakinkan dunia konsumen. Mereka berusaha dengan gigih agar dapat berperan dalam dunia nyata kehidupan manusia seiring dengan perkembangan maupun kemajuan zaman. Namun, dititik lain tidak sedikit pula bahwa konsumen-pun masih mengeluh, apa obat terbaik bagi tubuh komunitas peternak? Ini sepertinya sebuah pertanyaan segar agar mereka dapat menemukan sampai pada apa yang menjadi kontribusi dari usaha mereka bagi dunia sekitar. Sebagai upaya menjadikan komunitas yang memiliki nilai luar biasa. Belum adanya komunitas tersebut untuk meyakinkan konsumen dengan kriteria standarisasi persusuan market dunia membuat mereka merasa gerah terhadap pertanyaan tersebut. Saya pikir, keutamaan kita ialah mempertahankan kualitas produk. Karena kualitas akan  menjadi bagian terpenting dalam dunia market. Sedangkan bila bicara masalah kuantitas, bagi kita sepertinya itu bukanlah menjadi masalah paling urgent.

Instansi pengolahan produk peternakan sangat menutut sekali agar komplektisitas susu murni yang dihasilkan oleh peternakan tradisional mampu meyakinkan dunia market. Komplektisitas disini menjadi bagian konkret dari upaya improvement on dairy productivity. Instansi pengolahan produk susu tidak perlu bekerja keras melakukan perbaikan mutu susu bagi peternakan modern, karena mereka tahu kualitas susu yang dihasilkan oleh peternakan modern jelas telah mengarah pada peningkatan mutu. Ini jelas berbeda dengan peternakan tradisional yang ada di negara kita.

Saat ini kualitas produk (susu murni ataupun produk olahan susu) yang kita miliki bukanlah menjadi hal baru bagi dunia market. Fokus yang terjadi karena rendahnya kualitas persusuan nasional sepertinya membuat antusias para konsumen menjadi berkurang. Nyata sekali bahwa kualitas memegang peranan pokok dalam pola persaingan bisnis yang ada saat ini, baik dibidang usaha pengembangan peternakannya maupun dibidang hasil peternakan (misal susu murni cair, dan produk olahan susu). Semua itu tercipta dan terbukti karena semakin banyaknya produk-produk luar yang mulai merambah market persusuan Indonesia, mereka tidak segan-segan melampirkan iming-iming luar biasa (promosi) yang benar-benar dapat meyakinkan konsumen. Sistem promosi tersebut menyiratkan pada kita bahwa inilah wajah industri peternakan atau wajah peternakan yang ada di negara ini, ketinggalan sudah bukan menjadi masalah baru.

Solusi dari persaingan pola-pola peternakan yang dimiliki saat ini mencitrakan bahwa keuletan dan ketangguhan para peternak perlu diciptakan guna menekan persaingan yang membuat peternakan tradisional selalu berada di bawah. Memang menjadi hal tersulit bagi peternak maupun pelaku bisnis untuk mengangkat citra komunitas peternakan tradisional, karena kenyataannya inilah peternakan tradisional yang kita miliki.

Jadi, penyelamatan dunia peternakan akan semakin terbuka apabila kita memang memiliki kekuatan dan keuletan untuk meningkatkan kualitas produk dalam negeri. Itulah sebenarnya sebagian dari cara kita untuk addeted and complex process agar diperoleh kemajuan dalam upaya pengembangan usaha peternakan. Kemudian dengan sendirinya titik terang akan berada dibagian usaha peternakan tradisional. Sebagai seorang insinyur tentu saja tidak mengharapkan dunia peternakan yang ada di negara ini menjadi bagian yang sangat terpuruk, seakan-akan konsumen tidak pernah merasa adanya kaitan dengan hal tersebut. Saya pikir kita semua berharap sekali bahwa jangan sampai ada komunitas peternakan sapi perah yang beralih profesi. Karena beralihnya profesi berarti beralih pula kemampuan dan regenerasi usaha yang dimiliki. Kenapa demikian? Karena untuk membangun keahlian baru akan menjadi sangat sulit apalagi semua itu bisa menurunkan minat dan kemampuan terhadap usaha peternakannya sendiri.

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“Genetic Constructions”

ARTICLE AN ANIMAL GENETIC

 

BY YUDI

 Animal Production Specialist

 

Introduction

 The genetic constructions objective was building and completing an animal physic. The developed of genetic parameters were convenience of the animal grew up. In additional, according to researchers and geneticist were genetic parameters depend on lifetime an animal and production periods. But, a few studies treating to the repeated discussing genetic parameters, and they are finding or improved of the development an animal productions and reproduction system. Attempted, on the genetic by researchers has to shown value predicting so significant. The components genetic constructions using should be likelihood there are combining variances of data production and data analyzing. Both data combined that is the primary an animal production to estimates birth weight and they are chooses one of many terms that of the animal production. Therefore, the method overcome leasting intake about genetic parameters were constructing is the method exactly. Review is good step to repeated result research. The definition of the animal genetic parameters that are compositions from many special characteristic’s.

If our self view side of genetic parameters is an animal constructions is an abstraction. Hence, constructing abstraction as a matter of facts, it’s a true and so be clearly visible cause we look at that based of view side an animal skeleton and genetic regeneration. The parents as subject to offering something as contributions of improvement has offspring. Well to know and according to researchers both parents can given portion should be about 50% respected from there. But, a few researchers said, it’s the truth of the genetic constructions not always 50% respected, sometime we found should be 75% and 25% respected. May be depending on RNA and DNA chains that there are at the both parents. It’s not always the truth a new discuss but it’s really for every an animal parents.

If we looking the genetic construction describes, I’m really not sure we’ll founded and the explained, what does we know about the genetic constructions describes so very exactly. Why we can’t the illustration about that? And do you know, that we not a geneticist. Sometime we know the crud explanation about that, it’s should be having never-never founding the convenience of answered. Because if we know a realistic the explanation, May I said, you’re neither a specialist nor a clever man. I do understand what does you would do for making of meaning knowledge. But we as a man sometime it’s not a satisfaction of us.

Back to discussing genetic constructions, so many components structure that we need to build up an animal physic; in order to strengthen built an animal physical. Look at that, a case and more than one case can make our not be sure and never-never care for that something else. Many people have the same face or physically, and if you looking there alike of characteristics, that it’s true has an alike of habitual. Would you looking an alike that as a characteristics capability for a few twins. And I think it’s good for our to know, that it’s above exactly for more information. Although all short the explained it not makes your satisfaction.

That is the truth knowledge is very importance, any way apart of an animal life was conducted and that it’s always presented. The knowledge of genetic is a good to learning for an animal body. And than with knowledge can make your motivated to do it something or in good absorptive capability. The constructions as a structure should become main component’s to observe. We’ll be fine and feel that is a secret if we has been founding of the expectations. Usually we can’t what we want to find something for improvement our knowledge. The genetic constructions is good for our to know and our to developed. And do you know that is the genetic constructions as a basic in build up an animal, and given more than characters. What do you sure if we said that in health body and good intake of food can make an animal normal grow up? 

For various reasons apart of based on components genetic construction become primary to the form and repairing characteristic an animal. The components support by nutrition supply and environmental various. But before intake food consumptions may be we have to know based analyzed purpose that would be easy in research. Confuse for many exporter if we not understand purpose that will be of us discussion of the convenience topic. Don’t treating if you’re not really sure with your research and discuss. While you have good topic, I think the topic these good case and become clear if we understand in the explanation. Believed with what do you have and than do it as a job can make public interest of your idea. Some people it is indeed so really sure with discuss genetic construction but it is not fixed.

Genetic is an urgent word. Genetic is good word and it’s beautiful to our knowing. The component complex can we found not at all personal. That only special person, why I say for special person? If may I say something about genetic mean point we must finding been so a theoretical what’s mean of genetic construction and beautiful components. Having over capability that is for a part of person these is a miracle and must been say something it’s focus our hopeful. The recently of conceptualizing and developed a knowledge for focus exactly. So it’s all problem on abnormal of genetic for know it’s never can our trouble if want to changes characteristics.

Everywhere the occupations that researchers presents, not at all can make everybody clear. The public has a good occupations to generate by generate. Problem solving can make everybody believed for they’re results. A few researchers never have toward to development as well as knowledge they had.  They’re research toward that only academic focus. Genetic parameters can make found dilemma in our life. Feeling genetic became not always we are be happy. Just one time we’ll be fund on genetic capability. We must been good thing and than we’ll found good concept and genetic theoretical. No imagine to discovery nor only conceptualization from many geneticists. Understanding not only via concept but procedural practical can make our believed, than only be stay here. Don’t though who will be using procedure, such full an academic procedural that it’s become more importance. 

Theoretical of genetic parameter’s not always difficulty, these are the primary in our life. If want to spell of number, who will we are doing that is 1, 2, 3 and etc. There is something it’s so good and we are remember. Genetic constructions its not complementary of principals system but toward to genetics program. Not constructs and not program. Principals of the theory communication system between of legalities component or constructions or building in post developed only. Geneticists it not now that’s not theory build up nor basic components but the genetic on build up essential of constructs. The nutrient include were protein and others nutrient primarily to construction of RNA and DNA elements.

But every geneticist are know that’s not theory, field study on the research to proven something is the first and primary, if the result of research as well as make in principals of research.  

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

Inbreeding: Its Meaning, Uses and Effects on Farm Animals

Dale Vogt, Helen A. Swartz and John Massey
Department of Animal Sciences

Various mating schemes of animals are classified under two broad categories — inbreeding and outbreeding. Classification depends on the closeness of the biological relationship between mates. Within each category, a wide variation in intensity of this relationship exists. A very fine line separates the two categories. Mating closely related animals (for example, parent and offspring, full brother and sister or half brother and sister) is inbreeding. With less closely related animals (first cousins, second cousins), people disagree about where to draw the line between inbreeding and outbreeding.

Technically, inbreeding is defined as the mating of animals more closely related than the average relationship within the breed or population concerned. Matings between animals less closely related than this, then, would constitute outbreeding. These two systems of mating, with varying intensities in each, are described in Table 1. Matings indicated within the inbreeding category are self-explanatory; those within the outbreeding category are defined in the glossary.

Table 1
Degrees of inbreeding and outbreeding arranged according to biological relationship between indicated mates. (In reading from top to bottom, biological relationship between mates steadily decreases.)

Inbreeding or outbreeding	Coefficient of relationship between mates	Biological relationship between mates
Inbreeding	50 percent	Parent x offspring; full sibs
Inbreeding	25 percent	Half-sibs; double first cousins; aunt x nephew; uncle x niece
Inbreeding	12-1/2 percent	First cousins
Inbreeding	6-1/4 percent	Second cousins
Inbreeding	?	Linebreeding1
Inbreeding/outbreeding	0 percent	Random mating within breed or population2
Outbreeding	0 percent	Outcrossing
Outbreeding	0 percent	Breed crossing
Outbreeding	0 percent	Species crossing
Outbreeding	0 percent	Genus crossing

¹In a linebreeding program, the coefficient of relationship between mates is usually low; however, it can be quite variable.
²Random mating within a breed or population means that mates are chosen by chance. It should be understood that under this circumstance it is possible that either inbreeding or outbreeding could occur.

Biological relationships between animals

Individuals are considered to be biologically related when they have one or more common ancestors. For practical purposes, if two individuals have no common ancestor within the last five or six generations, they are considered unrelated.

Biological relationship is important in animal breeding because the closer the relationship, the higher the percentage of like genes the two individuals carry. Closeness of relationship is determined by three factors:

• How far back in the two animals’ pedigrees the common ancestor appears
• How many common ancestors they have
• How frequently the common ancestors appear. It is also influenced by any inbreeding of the common ancestor or ancestors

Measurement of degree of biological relationship

The coefficient of relationship is a single numerical value that considers all the above-mentioned factors. It is a measure of the degree to which the genotypes (genetic constitutions) of the two animals are similar. It is estimated by the expression:

R_BC = sigma[(1/2)^n+n’(1 + F_A)] ÷ Square Root of (1 + F_B)(1 + F_C)

Equation 1 where:

R_BC = the coefficient of relationship between animals B and C which we want to measure.

sigma = the Greek symbol meaning “add.”

(1/2) = the fraction of an individual’s genetic material that is transmitted to its progeny. It is used in the calculation of the coefficient of relationshop because it represents the probability that, in any one generation, an identical gene from a given pair of genes is transitted to each of two particular progeny. It is also the probability that an unlike gene from a given pair of genes is transmitted to the two progeny.

n = the number of gnerations between animal B and the common ancestor.

n’ = the number of generations between animal C and the common ancestor

F_A, F_B, F_C = inbreeding coefficients of the common ancestor and of animals B and C, respectively.

If none of the animals is inbred, the coefficient of relationship is estimated as:

R_BC = sigma [(1/2)^{n + n’}]

Equation 2

The use of this expression can be demonstrated with the full-sib sample pedigree and arrow diagram (Figure 1). In this example, assume neither sire nor dam is inbred. The arrow diagram on the right shows paths of gene flow from each of the common ancestors (D and E) to the animals whose coefficient of relationship we are measuring (B and C).

Figure 1

The problem now is to trace all possible paths from animal B to animal C which pass through a common ancestor. In this case, there are two such paths (Figure 2).

Figure 2

Equation 3

Since we have assumed no inbreeding in this example, the coefficient of relationship between animals B and C is estimated as:

R_BC = sigma[(1/2)^{n + n’}] = (1/2)^{1 + 1} + (1/2)^{1 + 1} = (1/2)² + (1/2)² = 0.50

Usefulness of coefficient of relationship information

A livestock producer would find coefficient of relationship information valuable in a number of situations. He may, for example, want to sell an animal related to one that previously sold for a high price. The higher the coefficient of relationship between the two, the better its use as a sales point. Or, he may want to purchase one of two related bulls and one may cost more than he wishes to pay. If the coefficient of relationship between the two bulls is high, he might be as well off with the lower priced bull as he would with the more expensive one.

A practical use of the coefficient of relationship is estimating the performance value of an untested animal. To estimate the value, we must know the performance value of a related animal, the coefficient of relationship between the tested and untested animals, and the average performance value of the breed, herd, or group to which the tested and untested animals belong.

As an example, consider a herd with a feedlot average daily gain (ADG) of 2.25 pounds per day. Assume further that a sire from this herd had a 3.50 pounds per day feedlot ADG, while a younger half brother has not, as yet, been evaluated for feedlot ADG. Assuming no inbreeding, the coefficient of relationship between half brothers is 0.25. The best estimate of the untested animal’s feedlot ADG is that it will deviate from the herd average 25 percent as far as does the performance value of the tested half brother. Using these figures, the most probable feedlot ADG value of the untested animal is 2.25 + (0.25) x (3.50 – 2.25) or 2.56 pounds per day.

Measurement of the degree of inbreeding

When we calculate an inbreeding coefficient, we are attempting to measure the probable percentage reduction in the frequency of pairing of dissimilar genes (reduction in heterozygosity). This reduction is relative to a base population. The base population usually is the breed concerned at a date to which the pedigrees are traced. Animals in this base population are assumed to be non-inbred. This does not mean these base population animals had dissimilar genes in each pair. There is no way for us to know how many of their gene pairs consisted of similar or dissimilar genes. The inbreeding coefficient that is calculated is simply relative to that base and reflects the probable percentage reduction in however many dissimilar gene pairs the average base population animals had.

The general expression for determining the inbreeding coefficient is:

F_X = sigma[(1/2)^{n + n’ + 1} (1 + F_A)]

Equation 4 where:

F_X = the inbreeding coefficient of animal X.

sigma = the Greek symbol meaning “add”.

(1/2) = the fraction of an individual’s genetic material that is transmitted to its progeny. It is used in the calculation of the coefficient of relationshop because it represents the probability that, in any one generation, an identical gene from a given pair of genes is transitted to each of two particular progeny. It is also the probability that an unlike gene from a given pair of genes is transmitted to the two progeny.

n = the number of generations between animal B and the common ancestor.

n’ = the number of generations between animal C and the common ancestor.

+1 = is added to n and n’ to account for the additional generation between animal X and its parents.

F_A = the inbreeding coefficient of the common ancestor.

If neither parent is inbred, but if they are related, the inbreeding coefficient of their progeny is half their coefficient of relationship: 1/2 R_BC This can be demonstrated using a full-sib mating to make comparison easy with the full-sib coefficient of relationship calculated previously. In this case, the pedigree for animal X and the arrow diagram will be as follows:

Figure 3

The problem now is to trace all possible paths from the sire (B) to the dam (C) through each common ancestor. As with the coefficient of relationship problem, there are two such paths:

Figure 4

Since we have assumed neither parent is inbred, the inbreeding coefficient of animal X is estimated as:

F_X = sigma[(1/2)^{n + n’ + 1}] = (1/2)^{1 + 1 + 1} + (1/2)^{1 + 1 + 1} = (1/2)³ + (1/2)³ = 0.25

Equation 5

This is one-half the coefficient of relationship between full-sibs when there is no inbreeding.

Genetic consequences of inbreeding

The basic genetic consequence of inbreeding is to promote what is technically known as homozygosity. This means there is an increase in the frequency of pairing of similar genes. Accompanying this increase, there must be a decrease in the frequency of pairing of dissimilar genes. This is called a decrease in heterozygosity. These simultaneous events are the underlying reasons for the general effects on performance we observe with inbreeding.

Reasons for inbreeding

Development of highly productive inbred lines of domestic livestock is possible. To date, however, such attempts have met with little apparent success. Although occasional high performance animals are produced, inbreeding generally results in an overall reduction in performance. This reduction is manifested in many ways. The most obvious effects of inbreeding are poorer reproductive efficiency including higher mortality rates, lower growth rates and a higher frequency of hereditary abnormalities. This has been shown by numerous studies with cattle, horses, sheep, swine and laboratory animals.

The extent of this decrease in performance, in general, is in proportion to the degree of inbreeding. The greater the degree of inbreeding, the greater the reduction in performance. The actual performance reduction is not the same in all species or in all traits. Some characteristics (like meat quality) are hardly influenced by inbreeding; others (like reproductive efficiency) are greatly influenced by inbreeding. We cannot, then, make a generalized statement about the amount of reduction in “performance” that would result from a specific amount of inbreeding and expect it to be applicable in a broad variety of situations.

It is possible, however, to predict the extent of the effect of inbreeding on specific traits. Such predictions are based on results actually obtained under experimental conditions in which various levels of inbreeding had been attained. In research with swine conducted at the Midwest Regional Swine Breeding Laboratory, Dickerson and others (1954) point out that for each 10 percent increase in inbreeding (of the pigs in the litter), there is a decrease of 0.20, 0.35, 0.38, and 0.44 pigs per litter at birth, 21 days, 56 days, and 154 days, respectively. We can use such figures to provide estimates of expected decreases in litter size (at comparable litter ages) in other herds of swine.

Most inbreeding studies suggest each successive unit increase in inbreeding results in a proportional decrease in performance. Estimates of average increases in percentage inbreeding within a closed herd can be made with the expression:

Avg. increase in inbreeding = (Number males + Number females) ÷ (8)(Number males)(Number females)

In a closed herd of cattle in which 100 females and four males were used in each generation, for example, the average per generation increase in inbreeding would be (4 + 100) ÷ (8)(4)(100) = 0.0325. On a per year basis, assuming a generation interval of five years, this would amount to an average yearly increase in inbreeding of 0.0065 or 0.65 percent.

Despite the generally poor results obtained with inbreeding, it is a very useful tool in animal breeding. Inbreeding is essential to the development of prepotent animals — animals that uniformly “stamp” their characteristics on their progeny. Because inbreeding causes an increase in the proportion of like genes (good or bad, recessive or dominant), the inbred animal’s reproductive cells will be more uniform in their genetic makeup. When this uniformity involves a relatively large number of dominant genes, the progeny of that individual will uniformly display the dominant characteristics of that parent.

Inbreeding may also be used to uncover genes that produce abnormalities or death — genes that, in outbred herds, are generally present in low frequencies. These harmful genes are almost always recessive in their genetic nature and their effects are hidden or masked by their dominant counterparts (alleles). Except for sex-linked traits, recessive genes are not expressed if carried singly. For their effects to be manifested, they must be present in duplicate. The likelihood they will be present in duplicate increases with inbreeding, because inbreeding increases the proportion of like genes (both good and bad) in the inbred population. With the effects of these genes uncovered, the breeder can eliminate them from his herd. He would cull progeny that showed the undesirable effect of these recessive genes and would also cull the parents that are carriers of the undesirable genes. In addition, two-thirds of the “normal” progeny of these carrier parents are themselves expected to be carriers of these same undesirable genes. In the absence of breeding tests to sort out the carriers from the non-carriers, it would also be necessary to cull all “normal” progeny of the carrier parents.

Breeders can use an inbreeding test to identify carriers of harmful autosomal recessive genes (like those responsible for snorter dwarfism in cattle, hyperostosis in swine, or cryptorchidism in sheep). An inbreeding test checks for only recessive genes that the tested animal (usually the male) carries. The following example and the numbers given are pertinent to cattle, where one offspring per gestation is usual. If we want to be sure at the 0.01 level of probability that a bull is free of harmful autosomal recessive genes, we would have to mate him to at least 35 of his daughters. He is mated to 35+ of his daughters because only half of them are expected to carry any harmful recessive gene their sire is carrying. We need the production of 35 normal calves without a single abnormal calf to show the bull free (at the 0.01 probability level) of any harmful autosomal recessive gene.

Tests in sheep and swine would require matings to fewer daughters. Actual numbers would depend on the average number of progeny produced per gestation in each species. Using the 0.01 probability level and assuming the average litter size is 1.5 in sheep and 8.0 in swine, the number of sire-daughter matings needed would be about 24+ for sheep and 5+ for swine.

Another important use of inbreeding is in the development of distinct families or inbred lines. Beginning with an initially diverse genetic population, inbreeding results in the formation of various lines, each differing genetically from the other. Continued inbreeding within these lines tends to change the frequency of some of the genes found in the initial population. For example, if a particular gene is present in only 1 percent of the animals in the initial population, inbreeding and the development of distinct lines could result in this gene being present in all or nearly all animals in some lines and in none or only a few of the animals in other lines. Inbred lines are used in a number of ways but are probably most notably used in the development of hybrid chickens or hybrid seed corn.

A generally mild form of inbreeding (linebreeding) is being used successfully by some seed stock and commercial producers. Its objective is to maintain a high degree of relationship between the animals in the herd and some outstanding ancestor or ancestors. With inbreeding in general, there is no attempt to increase the relationship between the offspring and any particular ancestor. In a linebreeding program there is a deliberate attempt to maintain or increase the relationship between the offspring and a specific admired ancestor (or ancestors). This feature distinguishes linebreeding as a special form of inbreeding.

The inbreeding coefficient of the offspring produced in a linebreeding program is generally low, but is dependent on the kind of breeding program followed. Figure 5 illustrates two linebreeding programs. The breeding program outlined in part A shows a direct line of relationship between offspring “x” and desired ancestor “5.” Only a mild level of inbreeding in animal “x” (F_x = 0.03125) is reached. The coefficient of relationship obtained between animal “x” and animal “5” is 0.2462. Part B is a linebreeding program based on continuous sire-daughter matings which, after only two generations, produces a level of inbreeding in animal “x” of 0.375 and a coefficient of relationship between animals “x” and “S” of 0.78.

Figure 5
Pedigrees and arrow diagrams for two line breeding programs.

 

The sire-daughter program in part B effectively concentrates genes from animal “S,” but because of the rapid increase in inbreeding of the progeny produced in this program, the breeder runs the risk of greatly reduced performance and a high probability of genetic defects. Linebreeding programs are best used in purebred and high performing herds when a truly genetically superior individual in that herd has been identified and evaluated by progeny testing. Concentrating that individual’s genes would then be best accomplished by mating him to unrelated females to reduce the risk of harmful effects associated with such intense inbreeding.

Summary

Inbreeding is technically defined as the mating of animals more closely related than the average relationship within the breed or population concerned. For practical purposes, if two mated individuals have no common ancestor within the last five or six generations, their progeny would be considered outbreds. The primary genetic consequence of inbreeding is to increase the frequency of pairing of similar genes. All genetic and phenotypic changes associated with the practice of inbreeding stem from this one primary consequence. In general, inbreeding results in an overall lowering in performance. It is most obviously reflected in poorer reproductive efficiency, including higher mortality rates, lower growth rates and a higher frequency of hereditary defects. Despite these generally harmful effects, inbreeding is a very useful tool in the field of animal breeding. It enables the breeder to uncover and eliminate harmful recessive genes within the population. It is also essential to the development of prepotent animals and is desirable in the development of distinct family lines. In addition, seed stock and commercial producers have successfully used linebreeding to maintain a degree of genetic relationship in their animals to some outstanding ancestor or ancestors.

Glossary

Terms describe various mating schemes and the progeny resulting from specific mating programs.

• Backcross
  Progeny resulting from the mating of a two-breed cross animal to one of the parental breeds. For example, using two breeds designated as P_1, and P_2, backcross progeny would be produced by mating the two-breed cross animal (P_l x P₂) with either of the P₁ or P₂ parental breeds.
• Crisscrossing
  A continuous program of crossbreeding in which there is an alternate use of males belonging to two breeds. Using two breeds designated as P₁ and P_2, a crisscrossing program, beginning with the two-breed cross an imal (P₁ x P₂), would begin by backcrossing to one of the parental breeds [(P₁ x P₂) x P₁]. Females resulting from these matings would be bred to a P₂ male, [(P₁ x P₂) x P₁] x P₂, and so on.
• Crossbred
  Progeny resulting from the mating of outcross animals belonging to different breeds.
• Genus cross
  Mating of animals belonging to different genera (for example, mating of domestic cattle, Bos taurus or Bos indicus, to the American buffalo, Bison).
• Grading
  Mating of purebred males of a given breed to non-purebred females and the resultant female offspring in successive generations.
• Inbred line
  Line of animals produced by mating related animals.
• Inbreeding
  Mating of animals more closely related to each other than the average relationship within the breed or population concerned.
• Incross
  Progeny resulting from the mating of animals from different inbred lines within a breed.
• Incrossbred
  Progeny resulting from the mating of animals from inbred lines of different breeds.
• Linebreeding
  Generally mild form of inbreeding in which animals mated are related to some supposedly outstanding individual.
• Outbreeding
  Mating of animals less closely related to each other than the average relationship within the breed or population concerned.
• Outcross
  Progeny resulting from the mating of unrelated animals within a breed.
• Species cross
  Mating of animals belonging to different species (for example mating of European breed cattle, Bos taurus, to Brahman cattle, Bos indicus).
• Three-breed rotational cross
  A continuous program of crossbreeding in which males of three breeds are used on a rotational basis. Using three breeds designated as P₁, P₂ and P₃, the first generation would involve production of two-breed cross animals, P₁ x P₂. In the second generation, two-breed cross females would be mated to males of the third breed, (P₁ x P₂) x P₃; three-breed cross females would be mated to males of one of the breeds used to produce the two-breed cross animals, [(P₁ x P₂) x P₃] x P₁, and so on.
• Topcross
  Progeny resulting from the mating of animals belonging to different families within a breed.
• Topcrossbred
  Progeny resulting from the mating of inbred males to non-inbred females of another breed.
• Topincross
  Progeny resulting from the mating of inbred males to non-inbred females of the same breed.
• Two-breed cross
  Progeny resulting from the mating of males of one breed to females of another breed.

G2911, reviewed October 1993